CHODZKO, ALEXANDER. 



rlliU.vriNA. 



frooi an aunt in Dami* Chodowieoki oontiniMd torn* time employrd 

 te this hmhle wmy. until through his enamel-master. Haid, be made 

 the acsuaiaUDos of some of UM artiste of Berlin, wboM work* anJ 

 eoovre,tion exeited his ambition, ud induced him in UM year 1754 

 to oVvote Mamlf arduously tod exclusively to art. Ha commenced 

 w. Md nwt with eooridmbU ueom. but be MOD 

 . art for etohinc. He etched chiefly from his own 

 _ richer he ultimately obuined a reputation equal if 

 M* superior to that of any artist of hi* age in Europe. His etchings 

 ar vry wumtf~r\ amounting to at least two thousand, but they are 

 mostly smalL and the s^ter part were executed for booksellers. A 

 prtaWlw of Berlin, of the name of Jakoby, published a complete 

 liHlDl.li of U* printe in 1814, in one volume octavo ; there is also a 

 bel*t of then fa hi* autobiography inserted in Meusel's Miscellany,' 

 --- ' and another in Heineken'i 'Dictionary,' 



ect*, consisting of heads, portrait*, his- 

 ' 



ehrooolofically ; and 

 according to the obj 



ng 

 nd 



torioal pieces sacred and profane, figures, and original compositions; 

 kslses[iss illnetrations for pocket-books and almanacs, from novels, 

 ACL. and frontispieces, vignettes, and tail-pieces for various works. 

 The work* engraved after Chodowiecki's designs or drawings by other 

 stUrsveis are lest numerous than his own etchings, but amount never- 

 theless to tome hundreds, including several designs for Lavater's work 

 o ' Physiognomy, 1 engraved by J. H. Lips and others. 



Chodowieoki was director of the Royal Academy of the Arts of 

 Berlin, where he died in 1801. Many of his designs are satirical, and 

 he has been called the Hogarth of Berlin. All his works, though on a 

 small scale, are remarkable for their expression, and the character is 

 eld mil exaggerated ; his subjects are chiefly illustrative of common 

 life or contemporary and recent history. Many novels and other light 

 " I which he illustrated, owed their success chiefly and in some 

 entirely to bis vignettes; and the 'Almanac' of the Berlin 

 y, which he illustrated from the year 1770, had, from the same 



, a very extensive circulation. 

 CHODZKO, ALEXANDER, a Polish poet, linguist, and traveller, 

 of whom little is to be gathered but from scattered incidental notices 

 in bis own writings. In the poems of Konak, a Lithuanian author, 

 there is an epistle to Chodzko dated from Wilna in 1826, in which he 

 oontratulatet him on his good fortune in being able to rove the East 

 la 1838 a volume of Polish poems by Chodzko himself was published 

 at Posen, bat is spoken of in no high terms by Polish critics. His 

 next production was in Enclish, and issued in London in 1842, at the 

 expmes of the Oriental Translation Fund. It is entitled ' Specimens 

 of the Popular Poetry of Persia, as found in the adventures and 

 improvisations of Kurroglou, the bandit-minstrel of Northern Persia, 

 ana in the tongs of the people inhabiting the shores of the Caspian 



orally collected and translated with philological and historical 

 by Alexander Chodzko.' In the preface, which is dated at 

 July 1842, the writer tells us that be collected these poems 

 i sojourn of eleven years in the countries where they are 

 current, and remarks, very truly, that the Oriental student will regret 

 with him the omission of the original texts, which he had taken down 

 hi manuscript from the mouths of the reciters, few of whom could 

 either read or write. These were not printed entire by the Oriental 

 Translation Fund on account of the expense ; but a few specimens in 

 the Tuks-Turkman, the Perso-Turkish, and the Zendo-Persian dialects 

 were added in an appendix, " from a hope of their greatly aiding the 

 rssearrhss of investigator, into the language of the euneiform inscrip- 

 tions of Van, Bistun, and Persepolis, and probably of leading to some 

 knowledge even of those of Babylon." The volume is singularly 

 interesting in its contents, which arc chiefly descriptive of the ex- 

 ploits of a sort of Turkish Robin Hood, and which are rendered into 

 spirited English by the Polish translator, who however acknowledges 

 Us obligations to the revision of the Kev. J. Reynolds, then secretary 

 of the Oriental Fund. His next appearance as a writer was in French, 

 in an essay oa the bilingual Lyoian inscriptions discovered in Asia 

 Minor by Sir Charles Fellowes, one of the languages of which he 

 attempted to prove was of the Slavonic family. Unfortunately 

 M. Chodiko appears to have taken the inscription from an inaccurate 

 copy, and the speculations founded upon it are therefore untenable. 

 This essay was printed by hit friend the poet Adam Mickiewicz, at an 

 appendix to L'fcglise OftVaeUe et It Mesdanisme ' (Paris, 1846), but 

 had been circulated tome yean before that date. In 1844 Chodzko 

 superintended the edition of Miekiewlci's ' Poems,' printed at Paris, 

 which was the latest issued during the author's lifetime, and is the most 

 important work of modern Polish literature. The first edition of 

 Mitldewioi. printed at Paris in 1838, bad been issued by Jakob Leonard 

 Omdtfcn, who is probably a relative. 



CHOUZKO, JAKOB LEONARD, a Polish writer, whose works 



frequently referred to by writers on Polish subjects, was bom at 



Oberek, in the district of Ozmiana, on the 6th of November 1800. 



aod was educated at the university of Wilna. He entered, with many 



ioU, into a secret society formed by the student Zan 



the Russian government; but before its discovery by the 



*Mba tthoritiss,wlkh Ud to the baniahment or imprisonment of 



* <* ito members, left Poland at salary to Prince Michael 



Oginski, whom he aooompanisd on bis travels. In 1 826, not venturing 



to return to PoUnd, be established himself at Paris as an author and 



has continued there sine., in the peaceful exercise of the profeo'iion, 



with the exception of a brief interval at the revolution of 1880, when 

 he so distinguished himself at the barricades that he was appointed 

 one of the aides-de-camp of General Lafayette. His chief works, all 

 of which are in French, are, ' Observations on Poland and the Poles, 

 a an Introduction to the Memoirs of Michael Oginski,' Paris, 1827 ; 

 ' History of the Poliih Legions in Italy,' 3 vols., Paris, 1829 ; and a 

 new edition of Malte-Brun's ' Picture of Ancient and Modern Poland,' 

 2 voK, 1830, with such considerable additions, especially an essay on 

 Polish legislation by Lelewel, and a sketch of Polish literature by 

 Podczaszyniki, as more than double the value of the original. He 

 also superintended two series of a work entitled ' La Pologue Histo- 

 riquo litto'raire, Ac.,' Paris, 1889-41, in which he was assisted by 

 Madame Olympe Chodzko, his wife. The whole of his works are of 

 the same character, useful compilations of facts, in which valuable 

 information is brought together in one language, the materials of which 

 had to be sought in another. He has made accessible to the European 

 reader much that lay buried in the neglected literature of Poland. 



CHOISEUL, KTIENNE FKAN< nlS, DUG DE, born in 171'.', 

 rose to the highest offices in the state under Louis XV., and was in 

 fact the ruling minister during a great part of that reign. He was 

 made minister for foreign affairs in 1758, minister at war in 1761, and 

 some years after he resumed the department of foreign affairs. He 

 held this last office till December 1770, when in consequence of his 

 imperious character, which had made him many enemies at court 

 among men of all parties, among whom were the ManSohal de Riche- 

 lieu and the Duo d' Aiguillon, he was exiled to his estate of (Jhanteloup, 

 where he wrote his memoirs and a satirical comedy against the royal 

 family, and especially against the dauphin, afterwards Louis N VI.. 

 styled ' Le Royauine d'Arle quinerie, 1 which he printed himself at 

 Chanteloup and distributed among his friends. His memoirs were 

 published at Paris in 1790, after bis death. The administration of the 

 Due de Choiseul was singularly unfortunate. In the war against 

 England, which terminated by the peace of Paris in 1763, France lost 

 Canada, and her fleets, as well as those of Spain, were defeated ; and 

 in the Seven Years' war France took the part of Austria against 

 Frederic of Prussia, who triumphed over both. The Due de Choiseul's 

 partiality for Maria Theresa of Austria has been strongly censured. 

 He concluded the marriage between Marie Antoinette and the dauphin, 

 afterwards Louis XVI. In 1760 he expelled the Jesuits from France. 

 He is also said to have secretly encouraged the first symptoms of 

 discontent among the English colonies of North America, 



Tho personal character of the duke was generous though haughty ; 

 he was disinterested and splendid in his expenditure, by which he 

 ruined his own fortune. He loved the arts and literature, and was a 

 friend of Voltaire and the other literary characters of that age. His 

 enemies exaggerated his faults, and attributed to him crimes of which 

 there is not the least evidence. He died at Paris in May 1785. 



(Sxamen dit Minitllrc du Due de Ckoiteul in the Mdnoiret <ln Due 

 d'A i'/uillon.) 



CHRIST, JESUS. [JKSOS CHRIST.] 



CHRISTIEHN II., of Denmark, born in 14S1, was the son of King 

 John, and grandson of Christiern I. He ascended the throne ou Mi 

 father's death in 1513. In 1520 he succeeded in having himself 

 elected King of Sweden, which country had been long distracted by 

 civil factions. Christiern took an atrocious, but, as he fancied it, an 

 expeditious way of getting rid of all opposition for the future. Having 

 assembled the chief nobles and prelates of Stockholm on the occasion 

 of his coronation, he hod them suddenly arrested and publicly exe- 

 cuted. He also massacred a number of the citizens of Stockholm. 

 (Puflendorf.) Gustavus Erickson, a descendant of the ancient kings, 

 who was a prisoner in Denmark, having contrived to escape, took 

 refuge in the forests of Dalecarlia, where he roused the peasantry, 

 attacked Christiern and bis satellite the Archbishop of Upsal, defeated 

 them, and drove the Danes from Sweden. [GUSTAVUS EUICKSON.] Soon 

 after Christiern was deposed by his own Danish subjects, who elected 

 Frederick, duke of Holstein, in 1523. Christiern retired to Flanders, 

 whence, after ten years, he set off with some Dutch troops, and made 

 an attempt to recover his Danish dominions. He failed; and, being 

 taken prisoner, was put in prison, whore he died in January 1559. 

 He has been called the Nero of the North. 



CHRISTINA (of Sweden), the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus by 

 Maria Klconora, princess of Brandenburg, was born on the 8th of De- 

 cember 1626. Her fattier bestowed great care ou her education, and 

 haviug no son to succeed him was anxious to cultivate in her a strong 

 and masculine disposition. Even when a mere infant ho expected that 

 she, as the daughter of a warrior, should hear the roar of artillery 

 without emotion. On his departure for the wars in Germany, 

 Gustavus Adolphus appointed a regency, and, carrying his daughter 

 in his arms, presented her to the assembled states of the kingdom as 

 their future sovereign. 



Guitavus fell at Lutzen in November 1632. Christina, then six 

 years of age, was proclaimed queen by the states, who left her in the 

 hands of regents or guardians, the five great dignitaries of the crown, 

 who were charged with the administration of attain and the task of 

 completing the young queen's education. The Chancellor Oxenstiern, 

 an experienced and enlightened statesman, was at the head of these 

 dignitaries, and the other members of the regency were persons of 

 ability and upright intentions. They however pursued the jilim 



