CHH18TOPHE, HURT. 



CHRTSOSTOM, ST. JOHN. 



bora about 1707 or 1798. The 

 for 8t ChrMoplMr. 8t Croii, 

 1 by diflforMit writer*. H* 

 TOO* OMB M akilf ul cook tarwn 



llllW 



an* attracted attention when . . 



b Cap* Town, 8L Dourfnfo. In 17W. on the insurrection of the 



Ueeksin the FreDoh partof that UUnd, be Joined the in.urg.nU, 



who paid cm* respect to hie gifantic sUtore, energy, and courmp. 

 A. ihinefwee^aeceeded he WM promoted in miliurrnuik. Toueaaint 

 Uaverture, UM pnenlMmo of the bucks, employed him to pat 



down M laaweeOoB headed by Moise, or Moses, that general'* own 

 . Chrietoph*, by employing coosnmmate artifice, got pos- 

 i of Hose*, who wa. put to death by his uncle, on which Chris- 

 Wd to his command in the northern province of French 

 He subesqmollT suppressed other revolts which troubled 

 (he dawn of Mffo freedom. In 1802. when General Leclero, brother- 

 bvlaw of Napoleon Bonaparte, conducted a strong expedition from 

 France to regain M. Domingo from the blacks, Christopho boldly 

 denaded Ospe-Town ; and when obliged to retreat he burnt a great 

 nut of the town, and carried off 8000 men, with whom he joined 

 TOT- tr* Louverture. When Toossaint was treacherously seised and 

 to Europe, Christophe rallied with Deesalines, who then 

 muander-in-chief of the blacks. Through the effect* of 



j and a fierce desultory warfare, in which no one was more dis- 



tiBfabbed than Chrutophe, there was no longer any French force in 

 the Uland by 1805. De*alinee then assumed supreme power in 

 Hayti. and advanced Christophe. Not long afterwards Dessalines was 

 suniiisrt of abuse of powers, and Christophe, joining with the mulatto 

 Petition, got up an insurrection and murdered him in October 1806. 

 Christophe was then proclaimed generalissimo and president for life 

 of th* republic of Hayti, and he named his confederate Pethion his 

 lieutenant and governor in the southern provinces. The negroes, 

 imitating the republican proceedings of their old masters the French, 

 bad a national assembly of their own, which met at Cape-Town, and 

 gave plausible grounds for Pethion, who was probably only jealous of 

 hta superior, to quarrel with Christophe. The mulatto general accused 

 the prerident of a design against the liberties of the republic ; the 

 pmadent called the general an anarchist and a revolted subject, and 

 taking up arms drove him back to Port-au-Prince, where Pethion how- 

 ever mfm t * i n*' 1 himself and what he called hi* republic for nearly 

 eleven year*. 



In 1811 Cbristopbe being undisputed master of the greater part of 

 the country, had himself proclaimed king of Hayti, under the title of 

 Henry L, royalty at the same time being made hereditary in his 

 family. Still following the fashions of Paris, he then organised a 

 court and an hereditary nobility, creating black dukes, counts, barons, 

 Ac. On June 2, 1812, he was publicly crowned, and the ceremonies, 

 all after the French pattern, are said to have been very solemn and 



;On the fall of Napoleon, the house of Bourbon entertained 

 regaining their old colony, but they were frustrated by the 

 power and skill of Christophe, who possessed several qualities that 

 fitted bun for government On the death of Pethion, in 1818, he 

 endeavoured to get possession of his state by force of arms, but he 

 wa* beaten back with great loss )>y the republican blacks under their 

 Dew president, General Boyer. These reveries, added to subsequent 

 lasses by fire, and other accidents, materially weakened him at a 

 moment when hi* cruelty bad rendered him generally unpopular at 

 home, and the state of his health unfitted him for exertion. He was 

 lying in bed from the consequences of an apoplectic stroke in Sans- 

 Sooei, a fine palace which hi had built and fortified, when an insurrec- 

 tion bant around him, which had been aided by President Boyer. 

 Th* insurgent* had already proceeded to extreme measures, and the 

 Duke of Marmalad* (a significant title), one of the first dignitaries of 

 the kingdom, had proclaimed the abolition of monarchy. Seeing that 

 nobles, generals, officers, and men alike deserted him, to avoid being 

 taken prisoner, Christophe shot himself through the heart on the 8th 

 of October 1 820. His widow and children, with his favourite, General 

 Noil, took refuge hi Fort Henri, but the garrison presently surren- 

 dered, when hto eldest son, Noel, and some inferior officers were 



Doting his reign Christophe entertained some enlightened views. 

 At one time be encouraged education, and the printing of books and 

 newspipcn. He even made a code of laws, which he called ' Code 

 Henri.' as BonaparU had called his ' Code Napoleon.' 

 ratB, 



, DUKE OF WORTEMBERO. was born in 1515. 

 Hi* early life was pa*t in great trouble*. In 1519-20 the confederated 

 Soabton dtiee expelled hi* father fine from his dominions, and trans- 

 farred the dukedom to the bouse of Anstria. Christopher was carried 

 to Vienna, where he narrowly escaped being made a prisoner by the 

 Turks during their siege of that capital, under the great Solyman. 

 In 1M1 the Emperor Chart** V. determined to confine him in a 

 auoxtery to Spain, befog more apprehensive of his talent* than of 

 > of hi* nUhcr th* expelled duke, who was still living. When 



aw to the Spanish frontier, Christopher escaped from his escort and 

 led to Bavaria, when his ancle, the reigning duke, and Philip the 

 landgrave of Hewr, took up his own and hi father's cause. The 

 landgrave in 16S4 defeated the Au.trians in the battle of Laufen, and 

 'a* mad Duk* Ulric. who was well received by bis people, and thence- 

 forward placed under the safe protection of UM great Protestant 



league of Sehmalkalden. The recovery of Wilrtemberg was a great 

 advantage on the side of th* Protestants ; but it was not until 1552, 

 or two yean after the death of Ulrio and the accession of Christopher, 

 that the Lutheran religion was fully established in that duchy. 

 Finding, after a reign of two years, his authority was firmly esta- 

 blished, Christopher proceeded to complete the work of the Reforma- 

 tion ; and it U as a church reformer that he is honourably distinguished 

 from the Protestant princes his contemporaries. Th* church property 

 be appropriated to the purposes of education, and to the support of 

 the ministen of the new religion. A great fund was formed out of 

 it and kept sacred, under the name of the ' Wurtemberg church 

 property ; ' the revenue derived from which sufficed to support what 

 were called the Wurtemberg cloister schools destined for the educa- 

 tion of the clergy the great theological seminary at Tubingen, and 

 other establishments for the instruction of the people. Christopher 

 also extended the liberties of his subjects, and gave them a code of 

 laws. After a popular and beneficial reign of eighteen years, ho died 



ill I" . .ln|..-r IMS. 



CHRYSIPPUS, son of Apollonian of Tarsus, was born at Soli in 

 Cilicia, B.C. 280. He appears to have been driven to study by having, 

 in some way, lost or squandered his patrimony. When he determined 

 on devoting himself to philosophy he went to Athena, and attended 

 the instructions of Cleanthes, whom he afterwards succeeded. (Strabo, 

 xiiu, p. 610, Cauaub.) Cicero ('De Nat. Deor.' ii. 6 ; ui. 10), in com- 

 mon with other ancient writers, describes Chrysippus a* a skilful and 

 acute dialectician, and (i. 15) accounts him tho most ingenious expo- 

 sitor of the Stoic dreams. Habits of industry probably gave him an 

 advantage over his rivals. Diogenes Laertius reports, upon the 

 authority of Diocles, a statement of ChrysippuVs nurse, that he 

 seldom wrote less than 600 lines a day. It appears however that he 

 indulged largely in quotations ; and the actual amount of his original 

 labour in composition cannot be gathered from the number of his 

 productions. He is said by Diogenes to have written upwards of 705 

 volumes, many on the same subject Cicero (' Tusc. Qwest' i. 108) 

 gives him the character of a careful collector of facts. After Zeno he 

 was considered the main prop of the Porch (Cic. ' A cad. QuicsC iv. 

 75); and allusions are frequently made to the estimation in which he 

 was held. (Juvenal, 'Sat.' ii. 5. ; xiiL 184 ; Horace, 'Epist' i. 2, 4.) 



Chrysippus sometimes exposed himself to the attacks of his enemies, 

 Carneades in particular, by defending two opposite sides of the same 

 question : but the arguments which were good in his were good also 

 in others' hands. He frequently succeeded in entangling his hearers 

 by the use of the logical form ' sorites,' which is said to have been 

 invented by him, and is called by Persius ('Sat' vi. 80) 'Chrysippus's 

 heap.' Sorites (<ra>pf/T7js) means 'a heap,' and is in logic a heap of 

 propositions in the syllogistic form. (Cic. 'Acad. Qinest.' iv. 16; 

 Whately, ' Logic,' p. 122.) Chrysippus did not spare his adversaries 

 in hia replies to their arguments ; and some anecdotes which are told 

 of him seem to show that he occasionally overstepped the bounds of 

 moderation. Notwithstanding this, his style of argumentation was so 

 much admired, that it was said, if the gods themselves were to use a 

 system of logic, they would adopt that of Chrysippus. 



Chrysippus appears to have held substantially all the main doctrine* 

 of the Stoic theology, though in some minute particulars he is said 

 to have differed from Zeno and Cleanthes: the charges of impiety 

 made against him are probably to be ascribed only to a peculiar 

 method of advocating his opinions. He died, apparently from an 

 apoplectic fit, at the age of seventy-three, B.C. 207. 



(Diogenes Laertius, book vii., Life of Chryupput ; Fabricii, Diblto- 

 t/tcca fintca, vol. ii, pp. 392-93.) 



CHRYSOLO'KAS, MANUEL, a learned Byzantine of the 14th 

 century, was sent to Italy about 1397, by the Kmperor Manuel Palmo- 

 logua, to request the assistance of the Venetians and the pope, and 

 the other Christian princes, against the Turks. Having fulfilled his 

 mission, he settled at Venice, where he gave lessons in the Greek 

 language. He afterwards taught the same at Florence, Pavia, and 

 lastly at Rome, where be grew into favour with the papal court, and 

 was sent to the council assembled at Constance, where he died in 

 1415. Poggio Hracciolini, Leonardo Bruni, and Filelfo, were the most 

 distinguished pupils of Chrysoloras in Greek. Chrysoloras wrote a 

 Greek grammar (entitled 'Epwr^urro, 'Questions'), which was one of 

 the first published in Italy, and was afterwards printed at Farrara in 

 1509. He also wrote several epistle* in Latin, in one of which, 

 addressed to the Prince John Paltoologus, son of Manuel, he draws an 

 eloquent comparison between Constantinople and Rome, which baa 

 been often quoted. Chrysoloras ranks among the restorers of classical 

 learning in Italy. 



JOIIM CiHiYboLoitAS, the nephew of Manuel, taught Greek in Italy : 

 he returned to Constantinople, where he died, about A.D. 1427. 



DKMETRIUH CuRYsoumis, probably a native of Thessalonica, wrote 

 on philosophy and theology. Some letters of his to the Emperor 

 Manuel Palicologus, in whose service be wax, and who employed htm 

 on several missions of importance, still exist in manuscript in the 

 Bodleian, Oxford, and in the Royal Library at 1'arin. There are also 

 manuscripts of several works by him, but they are of no importance. 



(,'HKYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN (xpHtbrropo,, that is, the golden- 

 mouthed), the most renowned of toe Greek fathers, was born of noble 

 and very opulent parent*, A.U. 36* (some writers say 344, and 347), at 



