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PYTHAOOB1& 



PYTHBAS. 



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an of the loftiest and most spiritual description. Virtue was with 

 them a harmony, unity, and an endeavour to resemble the deity. The 

 whole life of man should be an attempt to represent on earth the 

 beauty and harmony displayed in the order of the universe. The 

 mind should hate the body and the passions under perfect control ; 

 the gods should be wonbipped by cimple purifications, offerings, and, 

 above all, by sincerity and purity of the heart. Besides the works of 

 Hitter and Boeckh rcfcrreil to above, compare Hitter's 'History of 

 Ancient Philosophy,' i. p. 327, 420, EugL transl. 



After this brief sketch of the philosophy of Pythagoras, we shall 

 proceed to consider the manner iu which he endeavoured to apply it, 

 or at Irast its ethical part, to the affaire of ordinary life, which will at 

 the tamo time show the one-sidedneu of a view which might be 

 derived from a utatemeut of Cicero and Diogenes Laertius. Both of 

 these authors any that Pythagora* was the first Greek who assumed 

 the title of philosopher, aud that he compared his vocation to that of 

 a spectator at the public games. The definition implied in this com- 

 parison is only applicable to a small portion of the philosophy of 

 Pythagoras, for be manifestly did not consider more contemplation as 

 the sole snd highest object of man, but it was his doctrine that by 

 action as well as by thought the individual as well as the state should 

 represent in themselves an image of the order and harmony by which 

 the world was sustained and regulated. 



The precise objects of his institutions at C'roton arc not quite clear, 

 though we cannot suppose that they were either exclusively philoso- 

 phical, religious, or political. The perfect state of society, such as he 

 conceived it, depeuded as much on sound religious and philosophical, as 

 on political principles. It was not his intention to bring about hid 

 reforms at once by force or by the introduction of a new code of laws, 

 but by gradually diffusing his enlightened ideas. He seems never to 

 have filled any public office at C'roton, aud perhaps he may have 

 declined such places in order that be might not be checked iu his 

 designs by any of the existing institutions, which he could only have 

 overthrown by force. Pythagoras established at Croton a society or 

 an order, of which he himself was tho head, and which was to be the 

 centre from whence his reforms were to emanate. It consisted of 

 three hundred young men, selected from the most distinguished 

 families of Croton and other Italian cities. The society was, as a 

 modem hi.-toii.u expresses it, "at once a philosophical school, a 

 religious brotherhood, and a political association. ' The earuestiuss 

 and honesty with which Pythagoras went to work are apparent from 

 the fact ih.it he admitted none but the ablest men into his society, aud 

 that he Imtonod tho most anxious care on the cultivation of their 

 ir.in.U and hearts, in order to render tlietu alive to the highest objects 

 that can engage tho hiiii.au mind, and to make them clearly under- 

 stand the place which they occupied iu the world. The proceedings 

 of the society wero transacted in the greatest secrecy, but perhaps 

 more on account of the religious doctrines there inculcated than on 

 account of either philosophical or political principles. Religion indeed 

 Menu to have- been the foundation of the society, aud that bis religious 

 principles greatly differed from those generally received is clear from the 

 tenor of his system, and it is expressly stated that ho censured Homer 

 and Hesiod for their profane descriptions of the gods. (Diog. Laort, 

 viii. IU.) Outwardly however he showed great respect for the objects of 

 the popular worship a prudence which, together with his dignified aud 

 priestly appearance, was well calculated to win the affections and the 

 admiration of the people, while tho purer doctrines which ho imparted 

 to his disciples secured their most perfect submission. He instituted 

 among his discipli-s a secret worship, or mysteries, which are some- 

 times called Pythagorean orgies, and the science of numbers, geometry, 

 and music; and even medicine and gymnastics, including dancing, 

 wen closely connected with the sacred rites. Women seem also to 

 have been admitted, if not into the society, at least to some of the 

 lessons of the philosopher. (Diog. Iji-rt., viii. 21.) 



As to the political character of the institution, from which we must 

 derive our conclusions respecting his political views in general, it is 

 expressly stated that it was aristocratical, but iu the original sense of 

 the term, in which it means the government of the wisest and the 

 best. His object was to establish a rational supremacy of minds 

 enlightened by philosophy and purified by religion. That an aristocracy 

 appeared to him preferable, is apparent from the fact that he is said 

 to have thown his influence into the scale in order to restore this form 

 of government in some Italian cities, where it had given way to 

 tyranny or democracy. The three hundred members of the society 

 wen the model of an orutocratical senate, such as ho would perhaps 

 have wished to establish in every republic. We have no ground for 

 believing that they possessed any legal authority at C'roton, or super- 

 seded the old senate of the Thousand, as Nicbubr seems to think 

 (' Hist, of Rome,' i. p. 160), for the Three Hundred included many 

 who wen not even citizens of Croton. 



Those who wished to become members of the society underwent an 

 examination by Pythagoras himself, who is said to have been skilful in 

 judging of persons by their physiognomy. (Qellius, i. 9.) Thorn whom 

 he thought fit to be received were then submitted to a period of 

 regular probation and discipline. For a time, at least fnr two year', 

 they were forbidden to speak. During this first stage of their novi- 

 ciate they bore the name of Aconstici (bearers). During the second 

 period they were allowed to ask questions, and to make objections to 



what they heard, as well as to write about what they had learnt during 

 the first period. They were now called Matheuiatici, or scholars, for 

 their instruction was not confined to what wo call mathematics, but 

 included music and gymnastics. In the third stage, when tl.< y 

 received the name Physici, they were admitted to the last secret* iu 

 religion as well as in philosophy and politics. Another divi-i n < >f hi- 

 disciples which is frequently mentioned, was that of Esoteric and 

 Exoteric, aud it can scarcely be doubted that the former of thesu 

 names had reference to the three hundred, from whom no kind of 

 knowledge which their master could import was kept secret, while tho 

 name Exoteric was either applied to those who wore pas-: 

 the first stages of their noviciate, or, what is more probable, to a 

 much greater number of persons, who were not initiated into all the 

 secrets which the master hnd to unfold, and perhaps receiv. 

 instruction of a purely religious nature. The real character of some 

 other divisions mentioned by the ancients for instance, Pythagorici, 

 Pythagorei, and Pythagoristse, or Sebastici, Politic!, and Matheuiatiui 

 is matter of great diilioulty, though it is not improbable that they 

 may have been expressive of gradations similar to those des 

 above. AH candidates on entering upon then* noviciate had to 

 exchange their former mode of life for one which was regulated even 

 to the most minute details by Pythagoras himself. Their diet seems 

 to have been a subject of his especial attention, though the extant 

 accounts of the restrictions under which he is said to have placed 

 them are contradictory and incredible. The doctrine of the 

 migration of souls may however have led him to enjoin abstinence 

 from animal food. Many of these regulations respecting the diet and 

 the wholo mode of life of his disciples had probably a symbolical 

 meaning, and wero intended to impress upon their minds certain 

 philosophical or religious principles. In its external arrangements tho 

 society of Pythagoras presents some analogy to the institutions which 

 he had seen in Crete and Sparta. The members lived aud took their 

 meals together, and tho union and attachment among them are said 

 to have been so strong as to excite the jealousy of their relations. 

 Conscientiousness and uprightness in all the affairs of life were points 

 on which the philosopher laid great stress. (Iambi., ' L>e Vit. 

 Pyth.,' 144.) 



The overwhelming influence which Pythagoras and his order had 

 gradually acquired iu Croton and other Italian towns where branch 

 institutions of that at Croton seem to have been established, :i 

 induced the aristocrat ical party of Crotou to avail themscU es of his 

 services (Valer. Max., viii. 15, Ext. 1), but could not lail in the cm! i 

 excite their jealousy. If on tho other hand wo con-icU-r that hid 

 interference, iu the ailairs of the government must at all times havo 

 been viewed with dissatisfaction by the popular party, we see at ouco 

 the weak basis on which his institution rusted, and ono great 

 was sullicivut to ovu throw it This thock arose out < 

 between the popular aud ariatocratical parties iu tho neighbouring 

 town of Sybaris. 8- .. i.il exiles belonging to the aristocratic 

 had taken refuge at Crotou, and when the Sybarites required them to 

 lie surrendered, Pythagoras aud his associates prevailed o: 

 to reject the demand. A war broke out, which ended iu tho total 

 destruction of Sybnris, B.C. CIO. The senate of Croton and tin- 

 Pythagoreans seem to have been elated by this victory, and refused to 

 share the spoil and the conquered land with tho people ^iam. 

 Vit. Pyth.,' 255 ), aud it hiay have been about this time that tho 

 Pythagoreans, with overweening confidence iu their own strength an i 

 that of tho aristocracy, made the attempt to abolish the popular 

 assembly. Such proceedings however, instead of intimidating thu 

 people, roused their indignation. A tumult broke out, in wl:. 

 house of Jlilo, when the Pythagoreans were assembled, was burnt ; 

 many of them perished in the flames, and tho rest saved their lives 

 only by going into exile. Pythagoras himself sooms to have been 

 absent from Croton during this insurrection, and is supposed to have 

 died a short time after at Metapontum (about B.C. 504). Similar 

 insurrections soon followed in several other towns of Italy, where 

 branches of the Pythagorean society had been established. Soinx 

 Pythagoreans, such as Philolaus, Bed to Greece, where they taught 

 their doctrines aud had considerable influence on the philosophy of 

 Plato. The Pythagorean system was revived at a later period, and in 

 tho 2nd century of our era it appeared mixed up with the doctrines 

 of the New Platoniats. (Kri&che, ' l)e Societatis h 1'ythagora in urbo 

 Crotoniatarum conditaj Scopo Politico,' Ciuttingeu, 1631.) 



Various discoveries in mathematics, music, and astronomy arc 

 ascribed to Pythagoras, but it would be difficult to establish tho truth 

 of these traditions by historical evidence. Wo hare not tin " 

 worth while to repeat the monstrous moss of fables ami uiirachs 

 which are interwoven iu the biographies of Diogenes Laertius, Por- 

 phyriun, and lamblichus. Ho himself may, by his owu priestly 

 appearance and conduct, and by the secret proceedings of his society, 

 have given rise to these myths, and may even have encouraged the 

 general opinion' that he was endowed with supernatural powers; but 

 on the whole they may bo regarded as symptoms of the mighty 

 impression which ho mado on his contemporaries, as well as on subse- 

 i|in nt ages, for mieh an impression is the most fruitful source of 

 marvellous stories of every description. 



I' Y 'Till''. AS, a celebrated navigator, was a native of tho Greek 

 colony of Massiliu. He flourixhcd, according to some authors before 



