639 



SPINOZA, BENEDICT. 



SPINOZA, BENEDICT. 



640 



noxious air of the marsh/ soil, and Spinola himself was reduced to a 

 weak state of health, owing to the same cause; but after ten months' 

 siege, Breda opened its gates (June 1625). This was Spinola's last 

 achievement, his health obliging him soon after to resign the command. 

 In 1629 he was employed against the French in Italy, but he was 

 unable to gain any decisive advantage, and he died soon after (1630) 

 of vexation and disappointment caused by the complete disregard of 

 his pecuniary claims by the court of Madrid. Spinola was doubtless 

 one of the ablest generals of his time, being second only to his 

 antagonist, Prince Maurice, in military talent. 



SPINO'ZA, BENEDICT, the son of a Portuguese Jew at Amsterdam, 

 was born in that city the 24th of November 1632. He was named 

 Baruch, but on his renouncement of Judaism he always called himself 

 Benedict. From his infancy he exhibited remarkable indications of 

 mental acuteness, and his frail sickly constitution forced him to find 

 solace in study. He became well versed in the Hebrew language, and 

 learnt also Italian, Spanish, Oerman, and Dutch. His early studies 

 were principally the Bible and Talmud ; and his penetration was 

 so keen, and the logical tendency of his mind was so great, that he 

 won the admiration of Mortfira, the chief rabbin, who became his 

 instructor. His studies however led him to speculate curiously on 

 certain points which were received in the Jewish religion. The 

 immortality of the soul, for example, he nowhere found confirmed in 

 the Old Testament, a matter which has called forth great discussion. 

 Among the most celebrated of the treatises on this subject are Dr. 

 William Sherlock's 'Discourse of the Immortality of the Soul and a 

 Future State,' and Warburton's ' Divine Legation of Moses.' Spinoza 

 made DO secret of his opinions on this matter, and two of his young 

 friends soon disseminated the report of his infidelity. Spinoza was in 

 consequence summoned before the synagogue, where his judges, after 

 deploring that one who had given such hopes should have wandered 

 from the right path, informed him that he was summoned to give a 

 profession of his faith. He was accused of having treated the law and 

 religion of Moses with contempt, which he denied, but he maintained 

 his opinions. Long discussions took place, in which Morteiro, who 

 was enraged at his disciple, used all his endeavours to get him excom- 

 municated, in which he subsequently succeeded. 



A physician called Vauden Ende, who was himself accused of 

 scepticism, instructed Spinoza in Latin and Greek. Vanden Ende had 

 also a daughter, not prepossessing in appearance, but well acquainted 

 with Latiu, and an excellent musician. Spinoza took lessons in Latin 

 and love at the same time ; and would have married her, had not a 

 young merchant from Hamburg, with the more potent seductions of 

 pearl necklaces, rings, and other articles, won her heart. Spinoza's 

 Latin however was useful in his new philosophical studies, for which 

 he had abandoned theology ; and the works of Des Cartes falling into 

 his baud?, he read them with avidity. A new world was opened to 

 him, and he always declared that to Des Cartes he owed whatever 

 knowledge he had of philosophy. He had now quite freed himself 

 from the shackles of Judaism, was reserved with the Jewish doctors, 

 and absented himself from the synagogue. It has been asserted that 

 he professed Christianity and frequented the Calvinist and Lutheran 

 churches, and that he embraced Mennonism, but this is erroneous. It 

 is true that he held many conversations with learned Mennouites and 

 other sectarians, but never declared himself for any one. (' Vie de 

 Spinoza,' prefixed to Boulainvillier's 'ReYut. de Spinoza.') His attacks 

 on the Jewish doctrine so alarmed the rabbins, that they offered him a 

 pension of a thousand florins if he would consent to comply outwardly 

 with their ceremonies and from time to time present himself at their 

 synagogue. " Not if the pension were tenfold," indignantly exclaimed 

 Spinoza. 



With such a man there was only one remedy excommunication ; 

 but before that was put in practice assassination was attempted. 

 Coming one night from the theatre, he was attacked by a Jew, who 

 stabbed him in the face. The wound was fortunately slight; but 

 he saw the danger of staying in Amsterdam, and determined to leave 

 it. The day of excommunication at length arrived. The people were 

 assembled in the synagogue to assist in that extraordinary proceeding. 

 A vast quantity of black wax candles were lighted, and the tabernacle 

 wherein are deposited the books of the law of Moses was opened. 

 From the elevated chair, the chanter chanted in lugubrious tones the 

 dreadful words of execration, whilst another sounded the trumpet. 

 The candles were then held over a large tub filled with blood, and 

 melted into it drop by drop, during which the people awed by this 

 spectacle, and animated with religious horror, cried out Amen. 



Spinoza however found an asylum with his friend Vanden Ende : 

 and there he practised himself in the art of making glasses for 

 telescopes, microscopes, &c., in which he soon excelled, and thereby 

 procured an humble subsistence. But Morteira, who pursued him 

 with unabated rancour, got him exiled from Amsterdam, and he 

 retired to Rhynsburg near Leyden, where he followed his trade, 

 devoting every ppare hour to his studies. In 1664 he published his 

 1 Abridgment of the Meditations of Des Cartes,' with an appendix in 

 which he expressed opinions wholly inconsistent with those of Des 

 Cartes. He then went to the Hague, where he remained the rest of 

 his life. He lived as a perfect recluse, and with the most rigid 

 economy. His time was spent in study, or in correspondence with 

 the celebrated men of hia day. He would frequently not leave his 



room for three or four days together. His habits were sober, quiet, 

 and retired. The occupation of his life was philosophy; and the only 

 relaxation he allowed himself was his pipe, a little conversation with 

 the people in his house, or watching spiders fight an amusement 

 which would cause the tears to roll down his face with laughter. His 

 doctrines excited the indignation of theologians, but his virtues 

 endeared him to all who knew him personally. He died in 1677 of 

 consumption, in the forty-fifth year of his age. 



His published works are : ' Ecnati Descartes Principiorum Philo- 

 sophise, pars prima et secunda More Geometrico demonstrate, ' 1663 ; 

 'Cogitata Metaphysica,' 1664 ; 'Tractatus Theologico-Politicus,' 1670; 

 and ' Opera Posthuma,' 1677. The last contain ' Ethica More Geome- 

 trico demonstrata ; Politica ; De Emendatione Intellectus ; Epistolae 

 et ad eas Responsiones ; et Compend. Gram.. Ling. Hebr.' The 

 materials for this notice have been drawn from the ' Vie de Spinoza' 

 which precedes Boulainvillier's 'Refutation de Spinoza,' in which the 

 Life by Colerus is incorporated, and augmented by many curious 

 matters derived from a manuscript memoir by one of Spinoza's friends. 



The system of Spinoza is generally identified with atheism, both in 

 France and England, so that it has become a term of extreme odium ; 

 with what propriety it will be seen from the exposition of his doctrines, 

 which, from their celebrity, and from their having been so frequently 

 mis-stated and misunderstood, it will be useful to give correctly. 

 The one work of Spinoza which attracts the attention of metaphysicians 

 is the 'Etbica,' which appeared among his posthumous works. " No 

 treatise," says Mr. Hallam, " is written in a more rigidly geometrical 

 method. It rests on definitions and axioms, from which the pro- 

 positions are derived in close, brief, and usually perspicuous demon- 

 strations. The few explanations he has thought necessary are 

 contained in scholia. Thus a fabric is erected astonishing and 

 bewildering in its entire effect, yet so regularly constructed that the 

 reader must pause and return on his steps to discover an error in the 

 workmanship, while he cannot also but acknowledge the good faith 

 and intimate persuasion of having attained the truth which the acute 

 and deep-reflecting author everywhere displays." ('Introd. to Lit. of 

 Europe,' vol. iv., p. 243.) Spinoza is indeed the Euclid of metaphy- 

 sicians; and however widely we may dissent from his doctrines, yet 

 the rigid, close, and perspicuous reasoning, the elaborate construction 

 of his system, and the obvious deduction of his consequences from 

 axioms, recommend it to all thinkers as a great and intellectual 

 gymnastic. 



The eight definitions and seven axioms which contain his whole 

 system are the following : 



Definitions. 1. By cause of itself I understand that the essence of 

 which involves its existence ; or that the nature of which can only be 

 conceived as existent. 



2. A thing finite is that which can be bounded (terminari potest) by 

 another of the same nature ; for instance, body is said to be finite, 

 because it can always be conceived as larger. So thought (cogitatio) 

 is limited by other thoughts. But body does not limit thought, 

 nor thought limit body. 



3. By substance I understand that which is in itself, and per se, 

 conceived : that is, the conception of which does not require the 

 conception of anything else as antecedent to it. 



4. By attribute I understand that which the mind perceives as 

 constituting the very essence of substance. 



5. By modes I understand the accidents (affectiones) of substance 

 by means of which it is conceived. 



6. By God I understand the being absolutely infinite ; that is, the 

 substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses an 

 infinite and eternal essence. Whatever expresses an essence and 

 involves no contradiction, may be predicated of an absolutely infinite 

 being. 



7. That thing is said to be free which exists by the sole necessity 

 of its nature, and by itself alone is determined to action ; but it is 

 necessary, or rather constrained, when its existence is determined by 

 something else, and its acting by certain and determinate causes. 



8. By eternity I understand existence itself, as far as it is necessarily 

 conceived to follow from the sole definition of an eternal thing. For 

 such existence, as eternal truth, is conceived as the essence of a thing, 

 and therefore is not to be explained by duration or time, though 

 duration, beginning, and end may be conceived. 



Axioms. 1. All things which are, exist in themselves or in others. 



2. That which cannot be conceived per aliud, must be conceived 

 per se. 



3. From a given determinate cause the effect necessarily follows ; 

 and vice versa, if no determinate cause be given, no effect can follow. 



4. The knowledge of an effect depends on the knowledge of the 

 cause, and includes it. 



5. Things that have nothing in common with each other cannot 

 be understood by means of each other; that is, the conception of one 

 does not involve that of the other. 



6. A true idea must agree with its original in nature with its 

 object (idea vera debet cum suo ideato convenire). 



7. Whatever can be conceived as non-existent, does not in its essence 

 involve existence. 



These fundamental principles of his philosophy will to some appear 

 truisms, to others absurd. But when their language (and we have 



