231 



UMBREIT, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KARL. 



URBAN II. 



233 



suitors. Ulysses, in the disguise of a beggar, followed his son to the 

 town, where he was insulted by the suitors and some of his own 

 servants, but was welcomed by Penelope and recognised by his aged 

 nurse Eurycleia. With the assistance of Athena, Ulysses, his son, and 

 some of his faithful servants began a contest with the suitors, all of 

 whom lost their lives. Hereupon Ulysses made himself known to 

 Penelope, and went to his aged father Laertes. The news of the fall 

 of the suitors excited their friends and relatives to take up arms 

 against Ulysses, but Athena, in the disguise of Mentor reconciled the 

 people to their lawful king. Respecting bis death, the ' Odyssey ' 

 (xi. 119, &c.) only contains a mysterious prophecy of Tiresias, accord- 

 ing to which he was to die a gentle death in- his old age. According 

 to later traditions, Ulysses was killed by Telegonus, his own son by 

 Circe, who had been sent out by his mother in search of his father, 

 and was thrown by a storm on the coast of Ithaca, where he was 

 attacked, while plundering the country, by Ulysses and Telemachus. 

 (Hyginus, Fab,, 127 ; Horat., Carm., in. 29, 8 ; Dictys Cretensis, 

 vL 15.) 



* UMBREIT, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KARL, a Protestant theo- 

 logian, was born at Sonneborn in Saxe-Gotha, ou April 11, 1795. He 

 studied at Gottingen, where his acquaintance with Eichhorn produced 

 in him an inclination for the study of the oriental languages, and as 

 early as 1816, his 'Commentatio historiam Emirorum-al-Omrah ex 

 Abulfeda exhibens,' gained the university prize. After passing his 

 examination in 1818 he became professor extraordinary of theology 

 and philosophy at Heidelberg, in 1823 advancing to ordinary professor 

 of philosophy, and in 1829 to ordinary professor of theology. He was 

 a colleague with Ullmann in the editing of the' Stuctien und Kritiken.' 

 His chief works however and his great merits consist in exegetical, 

 tcsthetical, and critical expositions of the Holy Scriptures, to a great 

 extent resting upon his thorough acquaintance with the eastern 

 tongues. His first work, the 'Lied de Liede, das alteste uud schb'nste 

 ausdem Morgenlande' (The Song of Songs, the oldest and most beautiful 

 from the East), in which he maintains its completeness as a connected 

 whole against the opinion of Herder, was published in 1820, and has 

 been since reprinted. This was followed in 1824 by an ' Ubersetzung 

 und Auslegung des Buchs Hiob' (Translation and Interpretation of 

 the Book of Job), of which an English translation has appeared, under 

 the title of 'Version of the Book of Job ;' in 1826 by a ' Philologisch- 

 Kritischen und Philosophischen Commentar iiber die Spriiche Sa- 

 lomo's ' (a Philological, Critical, and Philosophical Commentary on 

 Solomon's Proverbs) ; in 1833, by the ' Christlich Erbauung aus dem 

 Psalter, oder Ubersetzung und Eiklarung auserlesener Psalmen ' 

 (Christian Edification from the Psalter, or Translations and Illustra- 

 tions of select Psalms); in 1843, by ' Grundtb'ne der Alten Testa- 

 ments ' (Fundamental Principles of the Old Testament) ; and in 

 1841-6, by 'Praktischen Commentar iiber die Propheten des Alten 

 Testaments ' (Practical Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testa- 

 ment), on which work he has bestowed great pains and labour, and 

 with great knowledge has made the oriental philological interpretation 

 of the Old Testament consonant with modern theological views. His 

 own theological creed is best shown in ' Der Knecht Gottes ' (The 

 Servant of God), 1840; and 'Die Siinde: Beitrag zur Theologie des 

 Alten Testaments (Sin : a Contribution to the Theology of the Old 

 Testament), 1833. In 1847 he published also 'Neue Poesie aus dem 

 Alten Testament,' which has been highly popular in Germany. Most of 

 the works above mentioned have gone through more than one edition. 



UNGER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB, was born in 1750, 

 at Berlin. His father, Johann Georg Unger distinguished himself 

 greatly by the improvements which he introduced into printing, and 

 the typographical ornaments then usually displayed in printed books. 

 The art of wood-cuttiug, which had fallen into neglect, was revived by 

 him, and he engraved in wood several landscapes, which are even now 

 considered as works of art. When he died, in 1788, his son, who was 

 established as a publisher and printer, followed the footsteps of his 

 father. He became one of the most distinguished printers and wood- 

 cutters of his time. As a printer, he endeavoured to introduce such 

 changes in the types of the German printed characters as would bring 

 them nearer to the Roman, and remove their old-fashioned and 

 angular forms. The kind of types which he introduced were called, 

 after him, Ungerian types (Unger'sche Schrift), and were used for a 

 time very extensively, but afterwards they gave way to the old forms. 

 The art of wood-cutting was much improved by him, and he was the 

 first who raised it to a high degree of estimation in Germany. As an 

 acknowledgment of his merits, he was appointed, in the year 1800, 

 professor at the Academy of Arts at Berlin, of which he had been a 

 member for some years. At the same time he continued his business 

 as a publisher, and many excellent works appeared from his establish- 

 ment. He died in 1804, and his wife, FRIEDEBIKE HELEN UNGEII, a 

 woman of very great acquirements and talent, continued his business 

 until her death, on the 21st of September, 1813. Friederike Uuger 

 acquired a considerable reputation as a writer of novels, and as a 

 translator from the French and English, with which two languages she 

 was perfectly familiar. Her novels, which are still much read, are 

 chiefly praised for their beautiful delineation of character. The best 

 among them are: 1, 'Julchen Griinthal, cine Pensionsgeschichte ' 

 (Julia Griiuthal, or the History of a Girl at a Boarding-school), Berlin, 

 1794, Svo. A third and much enlarged edition, in 2 vols., appeared in 



1798. It is translated into several languages. 2, ' Bekenntnisse einer 

 Schbnen Seele ' (Confessions of a fair Saint), Berlin, 1806 ; 3, Der junge 

 Franzoso und das Deutsche Madchen ' (The Young Frenchman and 

 the German Girl), Hamburg, 1810. Most of her works appeased 

 without her name. 



URBAN I. succeeded, A.D. 222, Calixtus I. as bishop of the Chris- 

 tian congregation at Rome, under the reign of the emperor Alexander 

 Severua. It was about this time that Minucius Felix wrote at Rome 

 his dialogue entitled ' Octavius,' in defence of Christianity. [Mixucius 

 FELIX.] We have no biographical particulars concerning Urban, 

 except that he died, some say a martyr's death, in tho year 230, and 

 was succeeded by Pontianus. 



URBAN II., Otho, bishop of Ostia, and a native of France, succeeded 

 Victor III. in the papal chair in 1088, being elected in a council held 

 at Terracina. Guibert, antipope, under the name of Clement III., who 

 had been set up by Henry IV. of Germany, in opposition to Gregory 

 VII., was still acknowledged as pope by a part of the Christian world, 

 and he had possession of some strongholds in the city of Rome. But 

 in the following year the people of Rome, encouraged by Pope Urban, 

 rose against the antipope and obliged him to evacuate the city. Mean- 

 time a marriage was negociated, through Pope Urban, between the 

 Countess Matilda, who was the great supporter of the pope against 

 Henry, and Welf, sou of the Duke of Bavaria and grandson of the 

 Marquis Alberto Azzo II. of Este. Henry of Germany, alarmed at 

 this alliance, which strengthened the power of the pope, went to Italy 

 with an army, and scoured the territory of Mantua, which belonged to 

 Matilda, who was obliged to take refuge with her husbaud in the 

 Apennines of the Modenese. Mantua surrendered to Henry. The 

 people of Rome, excited by Henry's success, turned against Pope 

 Urban, and recalled the antipope Guibert, 1091. In the following 

 year Henry continued to devastate the territories of Matilda, and the 

 Papal party was evidently on the decline, when the countess contrived 

 to induce Conrad, eldest son of Henry, who was with the army in 

 Lombardy, to revolt against his father by holding before him the 

 prospect of becoming king of Italy. It appears that Conrad was dis- 

 satisfied with his father's brutal conduct towards himself as well as 

 towards his step-mother Adelaide. However this may be, Pope Urban 

 received Conrad with great kindness, and caused him to be crowned 

 king at Milan in 1093. The pope, who had been at Anagni and other 

 places, also regained possession of Rome, except the castle of S. Angelo 

 and the Lateran palace, in which the antipope kept garrisons ; the 

 antipope himself was staying with Henry at Verona. In the follow- 

 ing year the keeper of the Laterau palace gave it up to Urban for 

 a sum of money, and some time after the pope repaired to Tuscany, 

 where he was met by the Countess Matilda. About this time Henry's 

 wife Adelaide, who was kept in confinement by her husband at Verona, 

 contrived to escape, and sought the protection of the Countess Matilda, 

 and there she disclosed all the particulars of her husband's brutality 

 towards her. In 1095 Pope Urban assembled a council at Piacenza, 

 at which two hundred bishops were present, as well as Queen Adelaide, 

 who made a solemn exposure of her husband's treatment of her. The 

 antipope and his adherents were excommunicated. There were also 

 present envoys from the emperor Alexius Comnenus, requesting 

 assistance against the Turks. It was in this Council that Pope Urban 

 first proclaimed the Crusade, but the furtherance of that object was 

 put off till the next Council, which the pope convoked at Clermont in 

 France, in the autumn of the same year, and where multitudes took 

 the Cross amidst the general exclamation of ' Dieu le veut,' 'God 

 wills it.' In the following year, 1096, Pope Urban assembled two 

 more Councils at Nismes and at Tours for the same object, and various 

 bodies of the Crusaders, the principal of which was commanded by 

 Godefroi de Bouillon, set out on their march through Germany and 

 Hungary towards Constantinople. Another corps under the orders of 

 Hugh, brother of Philip I. king of France, took the road by Italy, and 

 were met by Pope Urban in Tuscany, who gave them his solemn blessing. 

 They then proceeded to Rome, from whence, with the exception of 

 the castle of S. Angelo, they drove away the antipope and his parti- 

 sans. They then proceeded to Apulia, from whence they crossed over 

 to Greece. Pope Urban returned to Rome, where he celebrated the 

 Christmas festivals with great splendour. 



In the following year, 1097, Henry IV. left Italy, where his party 

 was reduced very low, and returned to Germany. Thus Pope Urban 

 and the Countess Matilda at last obtained their object. His rebel son 

 Conrad, who had married a daughter of Roger, count of Sicily, was 

 acknowledged king of Italy, although his power was little more than 

 nominal, as the great feudatories, such as Countess Matilda, the 

 Marquises of Este, Mouferrato, Susa, &c , acted as sovereign princes, 

 and the great towns of Lombardy and Tuscany had already established 

 their independence. 



In the year 1098 Pope Urban repaired to Campania, where the 

 Norman princes, Roger, duke of Apulia, his uncle Roger, count of 

 Sicily, and Richard, count of Aversa, were besieging Capua, which had 

 revolted against Richard. The pope endeavoured to induce the 

 citizens to capitulate, but not succeeding, he repaired to Bencven- 

 turn. Capua having at last surrendered, Duke Roger, and his uncle 

 the Count of Sicily, went to Salernum, whither Pope Urban went also 

 to have an interview with Count Roger, who was about returning to 

 Sicily. It was on this occasion that the pope appointed by a bull 



