341 



VICTOR I. 



VICTOR-AMADEUS II. 



313 



Vicq-d'Azyr*s works are very numerous, and were nearly all pub- 

 lished together by Moreau de la Sarthe, with the title ' CEuvres de 

 Vicq-d'Azyr,' 6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1805, with a quarto volume of plates. 

 The chief of them are as follows : 1, ' Observations sur les Moyens 

 . . . pour preserver les Animaux sains de la Contagion,' 12ino, Bor- 

 deaux, 1774. 2, 'La Mddecine des Betes h, cornes,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 

 1781 : this was published by order of the government, and contains 

 the substance of several previous works on veterinary medicine, and 

 especially on epizootic diseases. 3, ' Traitd d'Auutomie et do Physio- 

 logie, avec des planches coloriees,' folio, Paris, 1786. This, had he 

 been able to complete it, would have been a truly magnificent work. 

 Vicq-d'Azyr proposed to illustrate the whole of physiology by a series 

 of plates of natural size, but the work did not go beyond this first 

 part, containing the plates of the .brain, which are executed well, 

 though they are not without anatomical errors. Hia other principal 

 writings are contained in essays iu the Memoirs of the Academies of 

 Sciences and of Medicine. In the Memoirs of the former academy he 

 published, in 1774, the first part of his Memoirs on the Comparative 

 Anatomy of Fish and Birds, and on the Conversion of Muscle into 

 Fat during Life; in 1774 the conclusion of these Memoirs, and 

 another on the Structure and Physiology of the Extremities of Man 

 and Quadrupeds ; in 1776 a Memoir on the Comparative Anatomy of 

 the Ear; in 1779 one On the Organ of the Voice; in 1781, the 

 Anatomy of the Mandril and some other Apes; in 1784, Observations 

 on the Comparative Anatomy of the Clavicle. All these contained 

 many new and important facts; but they do not prove that Vicq-d'Azyr 

 was capable of working out the great general truths of physiology. In 

 the Memoirs of the Society of Medicine his essays are alao very nume- 

 rous, but less important than those in comparative anatomy : in these 

 also are published his numerous cloges delivered on the deaths of 

 members of the society, all of which are well written, and some are 

 even eloquent. He ed'ited the two volumes of the anatomical portion 

 of the ' Encyclopedia Me"thodique,' to which he contributed several 

 articles ; and he also edited the first volumes of the medical portion 

 of the same work, in which there are also several articles by him, 

 including one of considerable length and importance with the title 

 ' Anatomie Pathologique.' Many other essays were published in other 

 collections, which need not be enumerated : the last which he wrote 

 were, Observations on the Changes of the Vitellus during Incubation, 

 and a Description of the Genital Organs of the Duck, which appeared 

 in the 'Bulletin de la Socie"te Philomathique ' for 1793. 



(Eloye of Vicq-d'Azyr, read at the Society of Medicine of Paris, 

 1798 ; Deziemeris, Dictionnaire Historique de Medecine, &c.) 



VICTOR I., a native of Africa, succeeded Eleutherius as bishop of 

 the Christian congregation at Rome, about A.D. 185. During his 

 episcopacy Theodotus was expelled the Christian congregation of 

 Rome, for asserting the mere humanity of Christ. Victor had a warm 

 controversy with the churches of Asia, aud especially with Polycrates, 

 bishop of Ephesus, concerning the proper time for celebrating the 

 Easter festival. Irenseus, bishop of Lyon, remonstrated in a letter to 

 Victor upon his intolerance upon this occasion. Victor died about 

 197, and was succeeded by Zephyrinus. Some say that he died a 

 martyr, but the word martyr was often used by the early Christian 

 writers to signify a person who had in any way suffered on account of 

 the Christian faith. 



VICTOR II., GEBHARD, bishop of Eichstadt, and a friend and 

 adviser of Henry III. of Germany, was chosen by the clergy of Rome 

 to succeed Leo IX. in 1055. The monk Hildebrandua (afterwards 

 Gregory VII.), who had suggested the choice, was sent by the Romans 

 to Germany, for the purpose of obtaining the emperor's assent to the 

 election, which is said to have been given with some reluctance, as 

 Henry was unwilling to part with his adviser. Victor, having pro- 

 ceeded to Italy, assembled a council at Florence, in which several 

 abuses in the discipline of the clergy were condemned, and the ordi- 

 nances against alienating the property of the Church were renewed. 

 Another council was held in the same year at Tours, at which Hilde- 

 braud presided as legate. Berenger appeared before the council, and 

 was challenged to defend his opinion against transubstantiation. 

 Berenger however declined doing so, and he professed to submit to 

 the general belief of the Church upon the matter in question. 

 [BERENGER,] The year 1055 was a busy year for councils : a council 

 was held at Lyon against simony ; another at Rouen to enforce conti- 

 nence among priests ; and another at Narbonne, in which the usurpers 

 of certain possessions of the Church were excommunicated. In the 

 following year, 1056, Pope Victor went to Germany at the desire of 

 Henry III., and was there present at the death of the emperor, which 

 took place in that year. Victor remained in Germany with the 

 dowager empress Agnes and her infant son Henry IV. till the next 

 apring, 1057, when he returned to Italy. Pope Victor died at Florence 

 in the same year, and was succeeded by Stephen IX. 



VICTOR III., DESIDERTOS, abbot of Monte Casino, was elected by 

 the cardinals assembled at Salerno, after the death of Gregory VII., 

 in compliance with the wish expressed by that pope on his death-bed, 

 in 1085. Desiderius however declined the proffered dignity, and the 

 Church remained without a pontiff till Easter of the following year, 

 1086, when Desiderius, having gone to Rome, was invested with the 

 papal garments by the assembled cardinals, and proclaimed by the 

 name of Victor III. But the prefect of the emperor Henry IV., who 



had possession of the Capitol, and who supported the antipope 

 Guibert, who had been already set up in opposition to Gregory VII., 

 opposed the consecration of the new pope. After four days Desiderius 

 left Rome and returned to Monte Casino, having deposed his pontifical 

 robes at Terracina and renounced his dignity. During the Lent of 

 the next year, 1087, a council was held at Capua, in which Deeideriua 

 was prevailed upon to resume the papal office for the good of the 

 Church. The new pope then proceeded towards Rome, accompanied 

 by the cardinals and many of the Roman nobility, and by a body of 

 troops given to him by the Prince of Capua, and by Roger, duke of 

 Apulia. On arriving outside of Rome they defeated the troops of the 

 antipope, and drove him away from the Vatican. On the Sunday after 

 the Ascension, Pope Victor was solemnly crowned in St. Peter'a 

 church, after which he returned to Monte Casino, as the city of Rome 

 was still occupied by the partisans of the antipope. Soon after how- 

 ever the Countess Matilda arrived near Rome from Tuscany with a 

 large force, and invited Pope Victor to a conference, which took place 

 in the Vatican in the beginning of June. On St. Barnabas'-day, llth 

 of June, the pope and the countess, having forced the passage of the 

 Tiber, entered Rome amidst the acclamations of the people. 



On the eve of St. Peter's-day, 28th of July, a messenger from 

 Henry IV. having threatened the consuls and senators of Rome with 

 the displeasure of the emperor if they continued to adhere to Victor, 

 the Romans turned against the pope, and drove him and his friends 

 out of the town. Pope Victor however retained possession of the 

 Vatican, and celebrated mass on the next day in St. Peter's church. 

 A few days after Pope Victor thought proper to abandon Rome alto- 

 gether, and withdrew to Monte Casino, and thence to Beneventum, 

 where he held a council in the month of August, in which he anathe- 

 matised the antipope Guibert, as well as Hugo, archbishop of Lyon, 

 who had declared himself for the antipope, and had written a violent 

 letter to the Countess Matilda, in which he strove to blacken the 

 character of Pope Victor, charging him with ambition, cunning, and 

 other vices. This letter, which is inserted in Labbe's 'Concilia,' 

 probably gave rise to the several accusations against the memory of 

 Pope Victor, which are found in the Chronicle of Augsburg and other 

 compilations. Whilst the council was sitting, Pope Victor fell danger- 

 ously ill of dysentery. He hastened back to his favourite residence of 

 Monte Casino, where he died on the 16th of September 1087, after 

 having recommended the cardinals who were about him to choose 

 Otho, bishop of Ostia, for his successor, who was accordingly elected 

 by the name of Urban II. (Muratori, ' Annali d'ltalia,' and the 

 authorities therein quoted.) 



Pope Victor III. is better known in the history of learning as 

 Desiderius, abbbt of Monte Casino. In his convent he was a great 

 collector of manuscripts ; he employed amanuenses to copy the works 

 of the classics ; he restored or rather rebuilt from the foundations 

 the church and part of the convent upon a much larger scale than 

 that of the former structure, and he sent to Constantinople for skilful 

 workmen in mosaic and joinery to assist in adorning the church. 



(Peregrinius, Series Abbatum Cassinensium , Tiraboschi, Storia della 

 Letteratura Italiana.) 



VICTOR IV., antipope. OCTAVIAN, cardinal of St. Clement, was 

 set up by a small faction of cardinals, supported by the Emperor 

 Frederick I., in opposition to Pope Alexander III., in 1159. This 

 created a schism in the Church, which continued even after the death 

 of the antipope Victor, which took place in 1164. [FBEDERICK I., 

 Emperor.] 



VICTOR-AMADEUS I., Duke of Savoy, was born at Turin, on 

 March 8th, 1587. He was educated in the court of Spain, whence he 

 was called by his father, Carlo-Emmanuel, in 1614, to act with him 

 in the war against France. In July, 1630, on his father's death he 

 succeeded to the sovereignty, and early in 1631 concluded a treaty 

 at Cherasco, by which he not only restored peace to the duchy, but 

 acquired possession of Montferrato and Alba, in exchange for 

 Pinerolo and one or two other towns. On the establishment of peace 

 his first care was to improve his dominions, and among other things 

 he re-established the university of Turin, for which he provided a 

 handsome building, and drew to it a number of eminent masters. 

 In 1635 he was forced by the threats of Cardinal Richelieu to join 

 the French in their contest with Spain, on account of the Italian 

 possessions. After having gained two victories over the Spaniards, 

 he died at Verceil on October 7, 1637, leaving the war still raging, 

 and two infant sons by his wife Christine, daughter of Henri IV. of 

 France ; the elder of whom, Francesco-Giaciuta, reigned nominally for 

 a year, when he died, and was succeeded by Carlo-Emmanuel II., on 

 October 4, 1638. 



VICTOR-AMADEUS II., the son of Carlo-Emmanuel, was born on 

 May 14, 1666, and succeeded his father in June 1675, the government 

 being carried on under the regency of his mother, Fran90ise, daughter 

 of Gaston, duke of Orleans. On arriving at age he found himself 

 harassed between Louis XIV. of France on the one side and the 

 house of Austria on the other. The imperious Louis sent him 

 commands as if he were his vassal. In 1666 he compelled him to 

 subdue the Valdenses, a task effected not without difficulty, and with 

 great cruelty ; the sufferings of the poor people occasioning the 

 intervention of Cromwell, and the production of Milton's noble 

 sonnet. Louis also ordered him to send several regiments to join 



