FRANCE 995 



A systematic struggle begun by some Roman Catholic parents against secular teachers, 

 and secular class books, has provoked a counter movement in defence of secular teaching 

 (" defense de I'Ecolc laique "). On the other hand, some teachers holding advanced views 

 have come into conflict with the authorities (see below). Complaints are still heard 

 that school attendances are far from what they ought to be and that the compulsory 

 education principle is too often infringed. 



Local Government. The results of the Paris municipal elections for May 5-12, 1912, 

 were: United Socialists (Socialistes unifies) 15 Independent Socialists 9, Radical-So- 

 cialists 14, Republicans (Left) 5, Liberals and Progressives 27, Conservatives 10. The 

 Paris municipal budget for 1912 reached 17,907,000. A law passed July 31, 1912, 

 authorized a loan of 8,000,000 for building cheap dwellings. The municipal debt 

 amounted to 100,000,660 on Dec. 31, 1908; on Dec. 31, 1909, it was 98,977,000. 



In 1910 the total number of communes in France was 36,232. Their ordinary receipts 

 (Paris being excluded) rose in the same year to 24,120,000, and their expenditure to 

 22,804,000; while the municipal debt in 1909 was 67,610,000. 



Army. The fighting strength on the pay roll (effectijs budgetaires) in 1912 was 

 28,741 officers and 555,900 men; the estimate for 1913 was 28,932 officers and 563,500 

 men. Modifications have been made in the higher command, consequent on the dis- 

 cussion in Parliament which brought about the fall of the Monis ministry (see below). 

 The post of vice-president of the Cornell superieur de la Guerre was abolished and a Chief 

 of the General Staff was appointed instead. The Army Council (Conseil superieur de 

 la defense nationale) was reconstructed by the decree of July 26, 1911. Both measures 

 aimed at improving the organization of the higher command in peace or war. They 

 have been followed by other changes; younger officers are admitted to the higher grades, 

 and promotion- accelerated in the lower. With these ends in view the Law of April u, 

 1911, constituted, a " special reserve " of officers. These officers return to civil life, 

 while continuing to draw pay; but twice a year they must take part in military exercises 

 to keep in training in case of war. The officers' pay was increased in 1910. 



Discipline has been put to severe tests of late years by the anti-militarist opinions 

 advanced in certain political and labour quarters, animated by a rather crude humani- 

 tarian philosophy. Under the influence of such theories, the power of punishing offend- 

 ers was withdrawn from non-commissioned officers and subalterns, and put in the hands 

 of captains and majors (Decree of May 27, 1910). The measure was rescinded two 

 years later (April 24, 1912). The legislature acted even more heedlessly when it was 

 enacted that men previously convicted should be drafted into the army. Public opinion, 

 quite rightly, became alarmed at the amount of crime among young soldiers; and it 

 became only too evident that offenders, so far from being influenced for good by military 

 service, were corrupting others. This class of recruits was abolished April n, 1910, and 

 men who had undergone conviction were separated as before into the special corps called 

 bataillons d' Afrique. But at the same time the law suppressed the disciplinary com- 

 panies, made up of the worst elements and stationed in Algeria; " special sections " 

 were distributed instead in different parts of France, This proved an unlucky innova- 

 tion, and in 1912 the Government had to look for some new plan of organization. 



The weakness of the effective forces of France as compared with those of Germany 

 has been a matter of much concern. It has been suggested that their numbers might 

 be augmented by calling up coloured troops whose courage and loyalty have been tried 

 in the colonies; the idea being that such troops as these should be garrisoned in Algeria, 

 so releasing the present Algerian army corps for European service. 'In 1910 the Cham- 

 ber voted the necessary credits for the transfer of a Senegalese battalion, and the 

 experiment appears to have been a success. 



Aviation for military purposes has made remarkable headway. In 1910 the attention 

 of the Senate was called to the inadequacy of the French aviation service compared with 

 the fleet of dirigibles organized by Germany. The attention, however, more recently 

 paid to the development of aeroplanes has completely reversed the situation, public 

 opinion giving encouragement in the shape of a national subscription (March 1912). 



