LIQUID FUELS. 89 



The first calorimetric experiments were published by Ste.- 

 Claire Deville in 1868 or 1869, using a large calorimeter 

 especially constructed for the work. Mahler used the bomb. 

 The liquids were burnt in the bomb under nearly the same 

 conditions as solids, when they had no appreciable vapor ten- 

 sion. When they had considerable vapor tension (light oils, 

 for instance) Berthelot placed them in a closed vessel, the 

 bottom being platinum and the top formed by a pellicle of 

 gun-cotton. 



Heating by oil is quite recently introduced, but is 

 already developed to a high degree in Russia and on this 

 continent, and is gaining in other localities. The small 

 volume occupied in comparison with its high calorific power 

 renders it a formidable competitor with coal. 



To burn petroleum, atomizers fed by steam or compressed 

 air are used. They generally consist of a horizontal pipe un- 

 der the boiler, fed with oil from an elevated reservoir placed at 

 a presumably safe distance. The steam enters inside the oil- 

 pipe, and, mixing with the oil, throws it into a spray and pro- 

 duces a flame several feet long. At the Chicago Exposition 52 

 tubular boilers were exhibited heated by oil, developing a 

 power of 25000 H.P., and yielding a total evaporation of 12000 

 cubic feet per hour. The oil used was the heavy portion of 

 petroleum (the lighter ones having been distilled off for 

 illumination), and it was fed under a pressure of one-fourth 

 atmosphere. The result was an evaporation of about 15 

 pounds of water per pound of oil. 



In 1889 Albert Hubner ran a whole battery of boilers 

 with oil at his works in Moscow. He used Baku Nafta, or 

 ''Mazoute," which contained carbon 86.3, hydrogen 13.6, 

 and oxygen o. I per cent. The density was 0.910 to 0.914. 



At Petrolea and Oil City, Canada, the heavy residuum 

 from the stills is used as fuel under boilers and stills. The 

 burners used are very simple, and run without producing 

 smoke. In the United States, the Standard Oil Company has 



