LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 



148 



Paine, The Rights of Man. Putnams 



Puchta, Science of Jurisprudence. Scribners 



Pollock, Introduction to the Science <>f Politics. 



Macmillan 



Plehn, An Introduction to Public Finance. Macmillan 

 I Ma to, The Republic (tr. Jowett). Clarendon Press 



Plato, The Dialogues. 4v. Scribners 



Rousseau, The Social Contract. Putnams 



Richie, The Principles of State Interference. Scribners 

 Richie, Natural Rights. Macmillan 



Rae, Contemporary Socialism. Scribners 



Rannie, Outline of the English Constitution. Scribners 

 Stoddard, Abraham Lincoln. Fords 



Shaw, Municipal Government in Great Britain. 



Century 

 Shaw, Municipal Government in Continental Europe. 



Century 



Story, Equity Jurisprudence. Little, Brown 



Samuelson, The History of Drink. Amsterdam 



Story, The Conflict of Laws. Little, Brown 



Story, Constitution of the United States. Harpers 



Shaw-Lefevre, Agragrian Tenures. Cassell 



Shearman, Natural Taxation. Doubleday 



Smith, Wealth of Nations. 2v. Clarendon Press 



Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law. Clarendon Press 



Stubbs, Constitutional History of England. 3v. 



Clarendon Press 



Stubbs, Select Charters. Clarendon Press 



Simon, Govermaent of M. Thiers. 2v. Scribners 



fliwing, The Family. Little, Brown 



Turner, The Germanic Constitution. Putnams 



Von Hoist, Constitutional History of the United 



States. Scribners 



Ward, Dynamic Sociology. 2v. Appleton 



Wells, Recent Economic Changes. Appleton 



Wallace, Land Nationalization. Scribners 



Wieser, Natural Value Macmillan 



Woolsey, Political Science. 2v. Scribners 



Woolsey, International Law. Scribners 



Woolsey, Communism and Socialism. Scribners 



Walker, Political Economy. Henry Holt 



Alphabets, The alphabets of different 

 languages contain the following number of let- 

 ters : English, 26; French, 23-; Italian, 20; 

 Spanish, 27 ; German, 26 ; Slavonic, 27 ; Rus- 

 sian, 41 ; Latin, 22 ; Greek, 24 ; Hebrew, 22 ; 

 Arabic, 28 ; Persian, 32 ; Turkish, 33 ; San- 

 skrit, 50 ; Chinese, 214. 



Early Literature. The first Greek writ- 

 ers were Homer and Hesiod, 1000 B. C., Tyr- 

 tseus and Archilochus, 700 B. C., and Alcseus, 

 Sappho, and Anacreon, 600. The first Latin 

 writers were Cluatua, Ennius, and Terentius, 

 200 B. C. The first British writers, Gildas, 

 Neiinius and Bede, 500 and 600 A. D. The 

 first German writers, Eginhard, Wallafrid, and 

 llabanus, 800 A. D. The first French writers, 

 Fort, Gregory, and Maralfe, 500 A. D. The 

 first Spanish, Anian, Fulgentius, and Martin, 

 500 A. D. The first Polish, Yaraslof and Nes- 

 tor in 1000 A. I). The first Italian, Gracian, 

 Falcand and Campanus in 1100 A. D. 



CHINESE LITERATURE. 



The antiquity of Chinese literature is pro- 

 portionate to that of the .language, and its 

 development has been greatly promoted by 

 the early invention of the art of printing, 

 which has been known in China for at least 

 nine hundred years. The Chinese language 

 presents a remarkable specimen of philological 

 structure, which for ingenuity of arrangement 

 and copiousness of expression, is not surpassed 



in any written literature. It belongs to that 

 class of idioms which are called monosyllabic. 

 Every word consists of only one syllable. The 

 roots or original characters of the Chinese are 

 only 214 in number, and it is supposed that a 

 minute analysis would reduce them to a still 

 smaller amount. Each of these characters 

 represents one word, and each word an idea. 

 Their various combinations form the whole 

 language. Taken singly, they express the 

 principal objects or ideas that are suggested in 

 the common intercourse of life ; and combined, 

 according to obvious analogies, they are made 

 to comprehend the entire field of thought. 

 Thus the character, which originally repre- 

 sents the word "hand," is so modified and 

 combined with others, as to denote every vari- 

 ety of manual labor and occupation. The 

 Chinese characters are written from top to 

 bottom, and from right to left. The lines are 

 not horizontal, but perpendicular and parallel 

 to each other. Much importance is attached 

 by the Chinese to the graphic beauty of their 

 written characters, which in picturesque effect, 

 it must be owned, are superior to most forms 

 of alphabetic symbols. The grammar of the 

 language is very limited. The nouns and verbs 

 cannot be inflected, and hence the relation of 

 words to each other in a sentence can be un- 

 derstood only from the context, or marked by 

 their position. 



The Chinese literature is rich in works in 

 every department of composition, both verse 

 and prose. Their scholars are fond of discus- 

 sions in moral philosophy, but they have also 

 numerous books of history, geography, voy- 

 ages, dramas, romances, tales, and fictions of 

 all kinds. The labors of various European 

 travelers and students have given us specimens 

 of almost every description of Chinese litera- 

 ture. In legislation, we have a translation of 

 the Penal Code of the Empire ; in politics and 

 morals, the sacred books of Confucius, and his 

 successor Meng-Tsew ; in philology and belles- 

 lettres, a well-executed dictionary of the lan- 

 guage ; several translations and abstracts of 

 history ; and selections from the drama, criti- 

 cism, and romance. Among the most success- 

 ful explorers of the field of Chinese literature, 

 we may mertion Staunton, Davis, Morrison, 

 Klaproth, and Remusat, who have followed up 

 the earlier researches of the Jesuits at Pekin, 

 and elucidated a subject which had been sup- 

 posed to be inaccessible. 



Chinese literature suffered a similar mis- 

 fortune to that of the West in the destruction 

 of the Alexandrian brary ; for their Emperor, 

 Chee-whang-tee, ordered all writings to be 

 destroyed, that everything might begin anew 

 from his reign ; consequently their books aud 



