RELIGION, EDUCATION, FINE ARTS. 



565 



Greek, 14; French, 15; Italian, 197. Eleven 

 Popes reigned over 20 years ; 69, from 10 to 

 20; 57, from 5 to 10 ; and the reign of 116 

 was less than 5 years. The reign of Pius IX. 

 was the longest of all, the only one exceeding 

 25 years. Pope Leo XI 1 1. is the 258th Pontiff. 

 The full number of the sacred college is 70, 

 namely : cardinal bishops, 6 ; cardinal priests, 

 50 ; cardinal deacons, 14. At present there 

 are 62 cardinals. The Roman Catholic hier- 

 archy throughout the world, according to 

 official returns published at Rome in 1884, 

 consisted of 11 patriarchs, and 1,153 arch- 

 bishops and bishops. Including 12 coadjutor 

 or auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman 

 Catholic archbishops and bishops now holding 

 office in the British Empire is 134. The num- 

 bers of the clergy are approximate only. 



William and Mary College was es- 

 tablished at Williamsburg, Va., in 1693, and 

 next to Harvard College is the oldest institu- 

 tion of learning in America. At its endow- 

 ment it was placed under the patronage of the 

 King and Queen of Great Britain. The trus- 

 tees of the Hon. R. Doyle, the English philoso- 

 pher, who left his personal estate for " char- 

 itable and pious uses," presented a great part 

 of it to this college for the education of 

 Indians. During the Revolutionary war the 

 college lost most of its possessions, and its 

 buildings were used by the French troops as a 

 hospital. Among the noted men who were 

 graduated from William and Mary, were Presi- 

 dents Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, Chief 

 Justice Marshall, and General Scott. 



Sculpture, the art of giving form and ex- 

 pression, by means of the chisel and other im- 

 plements, to masses of stone or other hard 

 substances, so as to represent figures of every 

 description, animate and inanimate. It is 

 generally thought that sculpture had its origin 

 from idolatry, as it was found necessary to 

 place before the people the images of their gods 

 to enliven the fervor of their devotion. But 

 to form conclusions concerning the rise and 

 progress of the arts and sciences, without the 

 aid of historical evidence, by analogies which 

 are sometimes accidental, and often fanciful, 

 is a mode of reasoning which, at best, must 

 ever be liable to suspicion. In whatever coun- 

 try the earliest attempts were made, the Egyp- 

 tians were the first who adopted a certain style 

 of art. Their works were gloomy and grave, 

 but still they were full of deep sentiment, and 

 connected, as would appear by the hieroglyph- 

 ics which covered them, with poetry and his- 

 tory, and by the mummies, with the belief of 

 immortality. Interesting as the subject would 

 doubtless prove, it is far beyond our limited 

 means to trace the progress of this beautiful 



art through all its stages in the classic days of 

 Greece, till its decline in Rome, where, though 

 all the treasures of the Grecian sculptors had 

 been carried to deck the Roman capital, the art 

 never became naturalized. During the long 

 and gloomy interval of barbarism that suc- 

 ceeded the downfall of Imperial Rome, sculp- 

 ture, with the sister arts, lay dormant and for- 

 gotten. At length, however, through the 

 genius of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, and the 

 skill and perseverance of some of his dis- 

 tinguished successors, seconded by the patron- 

 age of the illustrious house of Medici, the 

 treasures of antiquity were collected, and 

 modern art nobly tried to rival the grace and 

 sublimity which existed in the ancient models. 

 Though till within the last century it could 

 hardly be said that a British school of sculp- 

 ture existed, yet the talent that has been suc- 

 cessfully called into action has produced many 

 works of sterling merit. The names of Flax- 

 man, Chantrey, Baily, and Westmacott, are 

 alone sufficient to redeem the national charac- 

 ter in this department of art. In the United 

 States, the productions of Greenough. Powers, 

 and other distinguished artists, have been re- 

 ceived with admiration by the most fastidious 

 connoisseurs. The very essence of sculpture is 

 correctness ; and when to correct and perfect 

 form is added the ornament of grace, dignity 

 of character, and appropriate expression, as in 

 the Apollo, the Venus, the Laocoon, the Moses 

 of Michael Angelo, and many others, this art 

 may be said to have accomplished its purpose. 



SCHOOLS OF ART. 



Certain modes of drawing and painting, fol- 

 lowed by pupils of a great master, have led to 

 the foundation of well defined " schools " of 

 painters, since the revival of the Art among 

 the Byzantine and Tuscan painters, of the 

 thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which 

 diverged into the Florentine and Genoese 

 schools (Cimabue and Giotto taking the head 

 of the former) , and the schools of Umbria and 

 Bologna. The fifteenth century was the great 

 period of artistic development, whence we may 

 trace modern excellence, commencing with the 

 Florentine School, at the head of which were 

 Fiesole and Masaccio. This school diverged 

 into the different styles, consisting of 1. 

 Such as studied exact natural truth , and whose 

 first exponent was Ghirlandajo ; 2. Such as 

 combined therewith a species of poetic treat- 

 ment, as Fra Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, 

 and Benozzo Gozzoli ; 3. Such as adopted a 

 sculpturesque treatment of the figure, as seen 

 in works of Andrea del Castagno, Antonio 

 Pollajuolo, and Andrea Veroccio. During the 

 first half of the sixteenth century, this school 



