28 



CAULKING 



CAUSALITY 



to air in mild or comparatively mild weather, but 

 severe frost must be prevented from entering the 

 glasses or frames. From the middle of August to 

 the 24th of that month, make two or three sowings 

 at intervals of three or four days. The plants 

 reared from these sowings are planted out, a cer- 

 tain portion of the strongest under hand-glasses to 

 furnish the earliest crop ; and an abundant reserve 

 of the smaller plants are planted a few inches apart 

 in frames, to be planted out finally in the spring in 

 the open ground. To succeed these a sowing may 

 be made in a hotbed in January or February ; and 

 again in March and May, plants should be reared 

 for successional crops, these later sowings being 

 made in the open ground. The ground must be 

 rich and the cultivation high to produce cauliflower 

 of first-rate quality ; there is some risk, however, 

 in having the ground too rich for the winter crop 

 in the case of severe weather occurring ; if the 

 plants are extra luxuriant, they will the more 

 readily succumb to frost. 



Caulking, in wood shipbuilding, is the opera- 

 tion of driving oakum or untwisted rope into the 

 seams of the outside planks, or of the deck plank- 

 ing, to render them watertight. The quantity 

 thus driven in depends on the thickness of the 

 planking ; it varies from 1 to 13 double threads of 

 oakum, with 1 or 2 single threads of spun yarn. 

 The caulker first raims or reems the seam that is, 

 drives a caulking-iron into it, to widen the seam as 

 much as possible, and close any rents or fissures in 

 the wood ; he then drives in a little spun yarn or 

 white oakum with a wood mallet and a caulking- 

 chisel, and afterwards a much larger quantity of 

 black or coarse oakum. The fibres are driven in 

 until they form a densely hard mass, which not 

 only keeps out water, but strengthens the plank- 

 ing. The seam is finally coated or payed with hot 

 pitch or resin. 



In iron or steel shipbuilding and boilermaking 

 the term covers the operation of driving the edge 

 of one thickness of plating firmly against the other 

 thickness upon winch it is superimposed, or to 

 which it is adiacent, thus rendering the joints 

 watertight. The tool employed is a specially 

 formed chisel, struck by a metal hand-hammer ; 

 but endeavours have been made to supplant this 

 by steam-driven machines, so far with but indiffer- 

 ent success. 



Canlop'teris, a generic name for the stems of 

 certain extinct tree-ferns, which range from the 

 Devonian to the Permian system. They are 

 hollow, and covered with markings similar to 

 the leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns. 



4 un ra, a considerable river of Venezuela, rises 

 among the sierras of the southern frontier, and 

 flows NNW. to the Orinoco. On both sides 

 stretches the territory of Caura (22,485 sq. m.), 

 with immense forests of tonka beans. 



<'aiis, CAULX, or CAULS, SALOMON DE, en- 

 gineer, born at Dieppe in 1576, was a Protestant, 

 and lived much in England and Germany. He was 

 in the service of the Prince of Wales in 1612, and 

 of the Elector Palatine, at Heidelberg, in 1614-20; 

 but by 1623 he returned to France, and became 

 engineer and architect to the king. He died in 

 Paris, 6th June 1626. At Frankfort in 1615 

 appeared his Raiaons des Forces Mouvantes, &c., a 

 work in which is described an apparatus for forcing 

 up water by a steam fountain, differing only in 

 one detail from that of Delia Porta (see STEAM- 

 ENGINE). There is no reason to suppose that the 

 apparatus ever was constructed ; but on the strength 

 of the description, Arago has claimed for De Caus 

 the invention of the steam-engine. See the article 

 DE CAUS in voL xiv. of the Diet, of National 

 Biography (1888). 



Causality, or the theory of the relation be- 

 tween cause and effect, is one of the most intricate 

 and important questions of philosophical doctrine. 

 All scientific investigation is occupied with the 

 search for the causes of given events, or for the 

 effects of given causes, and with the generalisation 

 of these into laws of nature. But the nature and 

 ground of the relation between cause and effect are 

 obscure and disputed. 



The difficulty of the question is largely increased 

 by the uncertain signification of the word cause. 

 Thus the investigation into the cause of things, 

 with which early Greek speculation was occupied, 

 was really an inquiry for the ultimate constituent 

 or element from which the variety of actual 

 existence had proceeded ; and from this inquiry 

 the quest for a principle of change or development 

 was only gradually distinguished. The first im- 

 portant step in the direction of clear discussion 

 was made in Aristotle's doctrine of the ' four 

 causes : ' the material cause, out of which a thing 

 is framed ; the formal cause, or the essence or 

 idea of the thing ; the efficient or active cause, by 

 means of which it took its present form ; and the 

 final cause or purpose it subserves. These, it is- 

 to be observed, are not so much causes in the 

 modern sense of the term, as principles which enter 

 into the existence of everything. In modern 

 science the meaning of the term is much more 

 restricted, corresponding in some degree to what 

 Aristotle called the efficient cause. Thus both 

 Bacon and Descartes wished to banish the notion 

 of final cause from the scientific interpre- 

 tation of nature; and although, in Bacon's own 

 method, science was treated as an inquiry into- 

 the form or true nature of things (corresponding 

 thus to Aristotle's formal cause), this notion has 

 had little influence. What Descartes sought, and 

 what science still seeks, is the connection rather 

 than the essence of things ; and its ideal is a 

 mechanical interpretation of nature in terms of 

 matter and motion. In modern science cause 

 may therefore be said to mean the explanation 

 of change. To some extent it corresponds with 

 Aristotle's efficient cause. But the notion of 

 efficient cause has itself undergone a profound 

 modification, which seems to have been carried 

 out alongside of the formulating of the principle 

 of the conservation of energy. The tendency in 

 science has been to replace the notion of power or 

 efficiency by that of order or constant sequence. 

 The genesis and justification of the notion of 

 efficiency are matters of dispute : whether it is an 

 a priori intuition, or derived from the conscious- 

 ness of the voluntary direction of attention, or 

 from the sensations of innervation and muscular 

 resistance. Both Berkeley and Hume directed a 

 vigorous polemic against the doctrine of power 

 expressed by Locke, as going beyond the observed 

 facts of the motion of bodies, and Hume refused 

 to see in mind any more than in matter anything 

 else than a succession of impressions and ideas. 

 Into the rights of this controversy it is impossible 

 to enter here. But clearness of scientific state- 

 ment has certainly been gained by the extrusion 

 of the notion of power, and substitution for it of 

 that of regular sequence. It is in following out 

 this view of the physical as distinct from the 

 efficient cause that the term comes to be defined 

 as the aggregate of the conditions or antecedents- 

 necessary to the production of the effect : meaning 

 by necessary conditions those conditions without 

 which the effect either would not have existed at 

 all, or would have been different from what it is. 

 In popular language, however, and even in most 

 scientific inquiries, the term cause is restricted to 

 the one or two conditions by the intervention of 

 which amongst other more permanent conditions. 



