cKL.srs 



CELTIBKKI 



55 



us < '.-l.sius( 1621-79), a professor of Astronomy 

 iiinl drriplii-rer of the Helsing runes, and tin- nrpln-w 

 di" nlof (VNius (1070-1766), professor of Theology 

 at l'jis;il;i, .iiitlmr nf tin 1 Uii-i-<>/>i,tiiiiii;,/i, ;unl an 

 iiii-iid ami patron of the great Linna -u-. 

 Anders became in 1730 professor or Astronomy at 



la. Two \cais later lie set out on a scientific 

 tour, \i>it ing the observatories of Nuremberg, Komi-, 

 ami I 'ai U. Alter his return he published his Ue 

 ObttrVOtionibua pro /n/i/rn tflluris il,i<rininiuul<t iii 



a Imltitia (Upsala, 1738). In 1740 he had the 

 -at infliction of seeing a splendid observatory erected 

 at Upsala, and here he laboured till his death, 

 _'.>! h April 1744. The Transactions of the Swedish 

 Academy contain ninny papers by Celsius on as- 

 tronomy ami physics. It is, however, as the first 

 consti iii-tor ( 1742 ) of the thermometer now chiefly 

 usi-il by scientific men, that he is best known. In 

 it the space between the freezing-point and the 

 lioiliiig-point of water is divided into one hundred 

 spaces, hence Celsius's thermometer is often called 

 the centigrade or centesimal scale. See THER- 

 MOMETER. 



Olsus, a Platonic philosopher, but tinged with 

 Kpicureamsm, who lived in the 2d century after 

 Christ, was a friend of Lucian, and wrote, about 

 176-180, during the persecution of Marcus Aurelius, 

 under the title Logos Alethi's ( ' true word ' ), the first 

 notable polemic against Christianity. The book 

 itself has perished ; out considerable fragments have 

 been preserved as quotations given by Origen in 

 his answer, Contra Celsum, in eight books. In the 

 fragments which are very interesting, as showing 

 tin- views of a heathen philosopher in regard to 

 < 'hristianity Celsus, with great acuteness and wit, 

 hut without depth or earnestness of thought, prefers 

 against the new religion charges of unphilosophi- 

 calness and blind credulity ; and especially endea- 

 vours to convict Christians of sell-contradiction 

 in their spiritual doctrine contrasted with their 

 Anthropomorphic representations of Deity ; in their 

 religious arrogance contrasted with their confession 

 of smfulness ; and in their views of the necessity 

 of redemption. He also reproaches Christians with 

 their party divisions and ever-varying opinion, and 

 ridicules them as worms in a corner who think 

 they occupy the centre of the world. Celsus 

 holds that the Supreme God can have no contact 

 with the material world, the creation of which is 

 the work of inferior deities or demons. He regards 

 evil as an essential property of the material world ; 

 he says : ' There neither has been in former times, 

 nor is there now, nor ever shall be, an increase or 

 diminution of evil. The nature of the universe is 

 ever identical, and the production of evil is not 

 a variable quantity. ... It is evident that those 

 who sin by nature and by habit cannot be changed 

 in any respect either by punishment or by pardon.' 

 He charges Christiana with having 'remodelled 

 "The Gospel" from the " first writing " three times, 

 four times, and many times.' However, as Origen 

 remarked, almost everything of an historical kind to 

 which Celsus refers is to be found in our Gospels, 

 especially the Synoptics. See Keim, Celsius' Wakres 

 Wort ( 1873) ; Aube, La Polemique Paienne in Les 

 Persecutions de Ffiqlise (1878); Pelagaud, Etude 

 sur Celse (1878) ; tfroude's Short Studies, vol. iv. ; 

 and the article on ORIGEN. 



school of medicine. Indeed, to CelsiiH, next to 

 Hippocrates and Galen, we mainly owe our know- 

 ledge of the medicine of antiquity. CeUus's works 

 were translated into English in 1736. Next to the 

 first edition (1478) the most important are thorn 

 of Targa (1769) am) Daremberg (1859). See Dr J. 

 Patrick, Apology of Origen in Reply to Celnu (1892). 



Celt (Lat. celtis (?), 'a chisel'), a name by 

 which the axe-heads of the early inhabitants of 

 Europe are known among British and French 

 archa-ologists. The Scandinavian archieologutts 

 use the word 'axe' and not 'celt.' Its use is now 

 considered pedantic, and it is fast becoming ob- 

 solete. The word is generally believed to have 

 originated from a misreading of Job, xix. 24, in the 



AULUS CORNELIUS, a Latin physician 

 and writer, who probably flourished about 50 A.D., 

 and wrote not only on medicine, but also on rhetoric, 

 history, philosophy, the art of war, and agriculture. 

 His style is succinct and clear, but full of Gra>cisms. 

 The only great work of his which survives is the 

 De Meilicind. The portions relating to surgery 

 are exceedingly valuable, as giving an account of 

 the opinions and observations of the Alexandrian 



Celte or Celtis is not elsewhere found in Latin. See 

 Notes and Queries ( 1878), vol. ix. p. 463 ; voL x. p. 

 73. 



Celts are either of stone or of bronze. Stone 

 celts vary in length from about 1 inch to 22 inches ; 

 but the most common size is from 6 to 8 inches 

 in length, and from 2 to 3$ inches in breadth. 

 They are made of almost every kind of stone, and 

 show considerable diversity of shape, almost all, 

 however, having more or less resemblance to the 

 I mussel-shell. The ruder celts are generally of slate, 

 shale, schist, or grit ; the finer, of flint, porphyry, 

 greenstone, syenite, or agate. Many of the finer 

 celts are beautifully shaped and highly polished. 

 Some very remarkable examples of this class are in 

 the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, 

 and one found near St Andrews, in Scotland, is 

 described by Sir David Brewster in the Philoso- 

 phical Journal for 1823. The stone celt was 

 fastened into a handle of horn, bone, or wood. 



Bronze celts vary in length from about 1 inch to 8 

 or 10 inches, the most common length being about 6 

 inches. They show much greater diversity of 

 shape than the stone celt. As many as four classes 

 have been distinguished by arcmeologists : (1) 

 The flat wedge-shaped celt, most nearly resem- 

 bling the common form of the stone celt. ( 2 ) The 

 flanged celt, with the side edges more or less over- 

 lapping, and a stop-ridge or elevation between the 

 blade and the part which received the handle. 

 ( 3 ) The flanged-edges celt, with side greatly over- 

 lapping, with or without the stop-ridge, but with a 

 loop or ear upon one side. ( 4 ) The socketed celt, 

 or the celt with a hollow to receive the handle, and 

 generally with a loop or ear upon one side. They 

 are sometimes ornamented with raised lines or 

 circles formed in the mould in which they were 

 cast. 



Both stone and bronze celts were probably used 

 for many purposes, serving for chisels, adzes, and 

 axes, as well as for weapons of war, like the stone 

 hatchets of the South Sea Islanders. See FLINT 

 IMPLEMENTS, STONE AGE, and BRONZE AGE. 



Celtlbe'ri, a brave and powerful people of 

 ancient Spain, supposed to have sprung from a 

 blending of the aboriginal Iberians with Celtic 

 invaders from Gaul. They inhabited a large 

 inland district of the peninsula, corresponding 

 to the south-west half of Aragon, nearly the 

 whole of Cuenca and Soria, and a great part of 

 Burgos, but the name Celtiberia had often a wider 

 signification, including the country as far south as 

 the sources of the Guadalquivir. The Celtiberi 

 were divided into four tribes, the chief the Arevacaj 

 and Lusones, and were unquestionably one of the 

 bravest and noblest peoples in the peninsula. Their 

 cavalry and infantry were equally excellent. For 

 many years they withstood the efforts of the 

 Romans to subdue them, and it was not till after 



