82 



CH^RONEA 



CHAFFINCH 



foundation of later legislation on the subject. He 

 served on commissions as to the employment of 

 children in factories, on preventable diseases, and 

 on education. On a change being made in the 

 Board of Health in 1854, Chadwick retired with a 

 pension. He afterwards took great interest in 

 promoting competitive examinations for govern- 

 ment offices, and indeed in almost all questions of 

 social economy. He was an active member of the 

 Social Science Association. Some of his papers 

 appear in the Transactions of the Statistical Society 

 and of the British Association. Died July 5, 1890. 

 See Chadwick 1 8 Work and Works on Health and 

 Social Reform, by Richardson (2 vols. 1885). 



CllJeronea, a town in ancient Bceotia, near the 

 river Cephissus, memorable for the disastrous defeat 

 of the Athenians here by Philip of Macedon, 338 B.C. 

 This defeat struck a death-blow to the liberties of 

 Greece, and broke the heart of Isocrates ; it was 

 the ' dishonest victory ' that ' killed with report that 

 old man eloquent. ' A colossal marble lion, together 

 with the bones of 260 Greeks, was dug up here in 

 1880. Here also Sulla defeated the generals of 

 Mithridates in 86 B.C. The famous Plutarch was 

 a native of Chseronea. 



('lia'todcrina, a remarkable primitive gas- 

 teropod, which in some respects serves as a con- 

 necting link between the worm and snail type. See 

 CHITON. 



4 'li;rt odon, a typical genus of a family of bony 

 fishes, known as Squamipennes. The body is 

 much compressed sideways, and consequently high ; 

 the scales are more or less smooth, and cover portions 

 of the dorsal and anal fins in such a fashion that 

 the boundary between fins and body is indistinct. 



Chsetodon setifer. 



The mouth is generally small in front of the snout, 

 and the slender teeth are arranged in bands. The 

 lower rays of the pectoral fins are branched,, and 

 the hind fins are situated far forward on the thorax. 

 The Sqwamipennes, or as some would call them, the 

 Chaetodontidae, are tropical fishes, abounding near 

 coral reefs, and well suited in the beauty of their 

 colouring to such brilliant surroundings. They 

 feed on small animals, are never very large, and 

 but little used for food. Chsetodon itself is a large 

 genus, with some 70 beautiful species from the 

 tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific. It has one 

 dorsal fin, and a moderately long snout. In Chelmo 

 the snout is longer, and is used to draw animals 

 from their crevices. It often gets false credit for 

 catching insects by spouting water. Heniochus is 

 another pretty genus with horns on its head. 

 Holacanthus, one species of which is called the 

 ' Emperor of Japan by the Dutch, is yet more 

 brilliantly adorned, and Pomacanthus is peculiarly 

 variable in its colouring. The Atlantic species of 

 Ephippus ( E. faber ) is peculiar in the pathological- 

 like enlargement of some of the bones at the back 

 of the head. The Archer-fish (q.v.) is an allied 

 genus. See Giinther, Study of Fishes (1880). 



Chaetopods (Gr., 'bristle-footed'), a class of 

 worms including familiar types like the Earth- 

 worm, the Fisherman's Lobworm, and the Sea- 

 mouse. They are often included under the title of 

 Annelids or ringed worms. The body consists of 

 numerous more or less similar joints ; and the 

 locomotor organs are furnished with or represented 

 by bristles. The class is split into two main 

 orders of Oligochaeta and Polychseta, of which 

 the latter is much the larger. The Oligochaeta. 

 have very rudimentary locomotor structures, 

 which are in fact reduced to bristles ; they are 

 fresh- water or subterranean in habit ; the familiar 

 earthworm (Lumbricus) and certain river and 

 pond worms (e.g. Tubifex and Nais) are com- 

 mon representatives. The Polychaeta are, with 

 three or four exceptions, marine ; the bristles, which 

 are numerous, are fixed in special locomotor out- 

 growths ; and many other characters, such as the 

 possession of antennae, gills, &c., distinguish them 

 from the earthworm order, and are in obvious asso- 

 ciation with their very different habits. Many of 

 them, described as errant, lead a free life, and are 

 carnivorous in their diet. The common Nereis, or 

 Alitta, and the Sea-mouse (Aphrodite-) are good 

 examples. A large number, however, are sedentary 

 in habit, vegetarian in diet, and often inhabit tubes. 

 The lobworm (Arenicola), the common Serpula, 

 and Terebella are characteristic types. To the two 

 main orders of Chaetopods above mentioned, the- 

 parasitic Myzostomata causing ' galls ' on feather- 

 stars ( Crinoids ), and the primitive aberrant Sacco- 

 cirrus must be added. Polygordius is another 

 common marine worm which, along with a few 

 others, is usually regarded as a 'survival of the 

 ancestral Chaetopods or Annelids. See EARTH- 

 WORM, LOBWORM, SEA-MOUSE, WORMS, &c. 



Chafer, a common name for beetles or coleop- 

 terous insects, especially for those which, either in. 

 the perfect or larval state, are destructive of plants, 

 particularly of the wood, bark, or roots of trees. 

 The word is seldom used alone, but generally as 

 part of a name, with some prefix ; thus, we have 

 Cock-chafer, Rose-chafer, Bark-chafer, &c. Kdferis 

 the German word for ' beetle. ' 



Chaffinch (Fringilla co3lebs), one of the com- 

 monest British birds, a species of Finch ( q. v. ), and 

 probably that to which the name Finch, now so- 

 extended in its signification, originally belonged. 

 Fink, the German form of the name, and pink and 

 twink, still used in England as popular names, 

 have some resemblance in sound to the common 

 call-note of the chaffinch. The whole length of 

 the bird is about six inches. The tail is very 

 slightly forked. The beak is almost equal in 

 breadth and height. The male, in summer, has the 

 top of the head and nape of the neck bluish -gray ; 

 the back, chestnut ; the wings almost black, with 

 two conspicuous white bars ; the tail nearly black. 

 The lower surface is reddish. The colours of the 

 female are much duller than those of the male. 

 The chaffinch is a very widely distributed species,, 

 being found in almost all parts of Europe, in 

 some parts of Asia, in the north of Africa, and as 

 far west as the Azores. In the colder northern 

 countries it is migratory ; in more southern 

 regions it is stationary. Linnaeus gave it the 

 specific name ccelebs, from observing that the 

 flocks seen during winter in Sweden consisted 

 chiefly of males, the females having, as he sup- 

 posed, sought a milder climate. A partial separa- 

 tion of the sexes is observed also in the great 

 winter-flocks in Britain, but it is only partial ; 

 and Yarrell thinks that the young males of the 

 previous season, which resemble the females in 

 plumage, are associated with them, and have been 

 mistaken for them. The flocks seen in Britain in 



