CHOIRS 



200 



associated with imperfect development of the larger 



urterii--, and i> then incurable ; but in tlie vast 

 majoiiu oi .-a-.-- it yields readily to treatment 

 unle.-* complicated \\iili sniiic other disease. The 

 principal mean- to I"- employed are air, exc'rci-c. 

 oftfii salt water liaths, with a nutritious ami 

 rather .stimulating diet, ami purgatives it' required ; 

 together with such special remedies a.s are adapted 



for restoring deficient secretions, ami bringing the 

 entire female -\<teni of organs into a natural 

 Condition; but alnive all, large doses of iron, 

 continued for some weeks or months. The tend- 

 ency to chlorosis is often hereditary, and relapses 

 are very apt to take place. For Chlorosis in plants, 



-ee (in'\ 'ol. VIII. p. 222) DISEASES OF PLANTS. 



's, a scholarly American lawyer, 

 born in Essex, Massachusetts, 1st Octol>er 1799, 

 graduated at Dartmouth in 1819, and was admitted 

 to the bar in 1823. He sat in congress from 1830 

 to 1834, when he settled in Boston. Here his 

 singular eloquence rapidly advanced him to the 

 place of leader of the Massachusetts bar ; indeed, 

 it has been claimed for him that he was the most 

 eminent advocate New England, or even America, 

 has produced. After a term in the United States 

 senate, 1 84 1 -45, he returned to his profession ; in 

 1859, his health giving way, he sailed for Europe, 

 but stooped at llalifax, Nova Scotia, where he 

 died July 13. His writings, with a memoir, were 

 published at Boston in 1862. See Neilson's 

 Memories of Rufus Choate (Boston, 1884). 



Chocolate is a preparation of the seeds of 

 Theobroma Cacao (see COCOA), made by grinding 

 the seeds to a very fine paste. The mill, heated 

 by gas, is constructed of heavy metal rollers 

 turning in a circular course upon a flat metal 

 plate. A curved knife or scoop is attached to the 

 rollers in such-wise that it shall return the paste 

 continually to be crushed and recrushed by the 

 rollers until it becomes almost impalpable. The 

 object of this is to render the nut, otherwise 

 difficult of solution, readily diffusible in water or 

 milk when used as a beverage. The paste when 

 unmixed is called Cocoa ; but when sugar and 

 flour or other farinaceous material with flavour- 

 ing matters such as vanilla, cinnamon, &c. 

 are added, it bears the name of Chocolate. 

 The two names are much confounded commer- 

 cially. Chocolate is moulded into cakes or sold 

 in powder or flakes formed by simply cooling 

 the paste as it conies from the mill. The seeds 

 or nuts contain a large proportion (30 to 50 per 

 cent.) of oily matter (cocoa butter). This may be 

 partially removed or all retained in the chocolate. 

 In the latter case much of it is mechanically adher- 

 ent to the sugar or farinaceous matter. Chocolate 

 is a favourite beverage in Spain, Italy, and other 

 southern countries, especially for breakfast ; the 

 cake or powder is heated and diffused in water or 

 milk with much stirring. The Italian rarely uses 

 butter, but cuts his bread into sippets and dips 

 them in his chocolate, the oily matter of which 

 performs the same nutritive functions as the butter 

 we spread on our bread. It is sometimes mixed 

 with coffee in Italy, and there known a.s mi.s- 

 cltintn. It is also made into a paste with cream 

 and sugar and frozen as chocolate ice. Vanilla is 

 the favourite flavouring. The name appears to 

 l>e Mexican, Chocolatl (choco, 'cocoa,' and latl, 

 ' water ' ). It was introduced from America to 

 Europe by the Spaniards. It is highly nutritious, 

 containing a large proportion of nitrogenous flesh- 

 forming material. On this account it is used as 

 portable food by many mountaineers. An excess- 

 ively rich food is obtained by preparing it with 

 milk and then whisking in a raw egg. The 

 waiters at certain Italian coffee-houses call this 



la gloria, and the ordinary infuHion 'Aurora.' In 

 tin' -nlid form, mixed with much sugar, cream, and 

 \arioii> < -oni'i -ctions, chocolate in largely used an a 

 .-\\eetmeat, and i.- introduced in paHtry. 



Chocolate Root. SeeGieuM. 



Choctaws, a tribe of American Indians, be- 

 longing to the Appalachian .-lock, and formerly 

 inhabiting the central portions of Mississippi, but 

 now settled in the south-east of Indian Territory, 

 where they are regarded as one of the four civili.-ed 

 nations, and hold 6,668,000 acres of land. They 

 have benefited greatly by the lalmurH of mission- 

 aries, and have become good farmers and mechanics. 



Chodowiecki, DANIEL NIKOLAUS, German 

 painter and copperplate engraver, was born in 

 1726 at Danzig, and died director of the Academy 

 of Sciences at Berlin, 7th February 1801. He pro- 

 duced some 3000 plates, mostly small. 



Choir* See CHURCH and CHANCEL. 



Choirs and Choral Singing. Choir pro- 

 perly denotes the body of singers who perform 

 the musical part of a church service, but has lately 

 l'i-i-n applied also to independent choral societies, 

 such as the Bach Choir in London. The composi- 

 tion of a choir is so variable that only a few general 

 principles can be indicated. The commonest and 

 typical form is that of the four-part choir of mixed 

 voices i.e. both male and female ; the soprano 

 part, however, is often taken by boys, and the 

 next by male alto voices. While it is desirable 

 that the individual voices should themselves be 

 good and well trained, there are requisites over 

 and above those looked for in solo singing. These 

 are briefly : ( 1 ) An equal- balance of voice-power 

 in each part; (2) adaptation of the number of 

 voices to the size of the building where they sing ; 

 (3) an exact sense of time and rhythm in the 

 singers, and the power of maintaining each part 

 independent, while still in agreement with the 

 others; (4) facility in singing at sight; and (5) 

 frequent practice together. Though many choirs 

 are guided by the organist alone, or have merely 

 a leader, a conductor is always of the greatest 

 advantage, much of the expression and effect de- 

 pending on him, and the more so in proportion as 

 the choir and the works sung are larger. It is a 

 much debated point whether the choir should sing 

 alone, or guide the singing of the congregation. 

 In not a few American churches the former 

 principle is developed in a singular form, the 

 quartet choir consisting merely of four solo 

 singers, by whom alone the whole music of the 

 service is sung. 



In the Eastern Church the music is unaccom- 

 panied, and is sung by the priest and choir alone. 

 The choir of the Imperial Cnapel in St Petersburg 

 consists of a 1 MM u 120 voices, men and boys, who have 

 no other occupation. In the Church of Rome the 

 most notable is the Sistine or papal choir in Home. 

 Its genealogy is traceable to the singing schools 

 established oy very early popes, but extensively 

 developed by Gregory the Great. It has for a 

 long while consisted* of thirty-two choral chap- 

 lains, occasionally supplemented, and has gener- 

 ally possessed specimen- of the rare adult male 

 soprano voice, the leader in 1888 being one. They 

 sing unaccompanied, but the organ is generally 

 used in other Roman Catholic services. The effect 

 of their singing during the Passion-week has been 

 well described in Mendelssohn's letters. A body of 

 some thirty-five of them were brought by the pope 

 to the coronation of Napoleon in N6tre Dame, 

 Paris, and entirely eclipsed a large chorus accom- 

 panied by eighty harps which was expected to 

 produce an unprecedented effect. Since 1870 this 

 choir has been very seldom heard at all. In the 

 Lutheran churches in Germany, when there is a 



