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CHOISEUL-AMBOISE 



CHOLECYSTOTOMY 



choir, as a rule they sing alone, and the congrega- 

 tion alone. The choir sing (unaccompanied) poly- 

 phonic motets, or less familiar hymns, the congre- 

 gation singing the chorales in unison, with organ 

 accompaniment. The most celebrated German 

 choirs are those of the cathedral in Berlin and 

 of the Thomas Church at Leipzig. The English 

 cathedral choirs are more or less richly endowed, 

 Durham standing at the head with 2400 a year. 

 As a specimen, some details may be given in regard 

 to Norwich. Here the choir consists of fourteen 

 choristers (boys) and eight lay clerks (men). For 

 the purpose of antiphonal singing these are divided 

 into two sides, denominated ( from the seats of the 

 precentor and dean respectively ) the Cantoris and 

 Decani. The lay clerks are appointed by the 

 dean ; the choristers are trained by the organist, 

 and have two rehearsals daily. A full rehearsal 

 of all the choir is held weekly ; they all attend on 

 Sundays and festivals and (with the exception 

 that each lay clerk is entitled to one week's ab- 

 sence in six ) at the daily services. The precentor 

 has the whole control of the choir, selection of 

 music, &c., while the organist is responsible for 

 the accompaniments, the training of the choristers, 

 &c. The late Dr Buck of Norwich was perhaps 

 the most celebrated trainer of cathedral choirs in 

 the 19th century. Among the noted English choirs 

 are those of the Temple Church in London and 

 Magdalen and New College Chapels, Oxford. 

 There is almost no literature on this subject, but 

 much information is contained in Curwen's Studies 

 in Worship Music (two series, Lond. 1885-88). 

 See CHORUS, INTONING, SERVICE (MUSICAL). 



Choiseul-Amhoise, ETIENNE FRANCOIS, 

 Due DE, minister of Louis XV., was born in 1719. 

 He served with credit in the Austrian Wars of 

 Succession, and through the favour of the king's 

 mistress, Madame de Pompadour, became lieuten- 

 ant-general in 1748, and Due de Choiseul in 1758. 

 He was sent to Rome and next to Vienna in 

 1756 to arrange the alliance between France and 

 Austria against Frederick the Great, and it was 

 his policy that brought about later the family 

 league of the Bourbon monarchs in Europe. He 

 made himself very popular by the fairly favourable 

 terms he obtained in 1763 at the close of a dis- 

 astrous war, and further by his opposition to the 

 Jesuits. He conceived, and almost carried out, a 

 plan for the formal emancipation of the Gallican 

 Church from papal influence, improved the army 

 and navy, developed the trade and industry both 

 of the nation and of the colonies, and opened up 

 anew an intercourse with India, whose native 

 princes were assisted by French officers in their 

 endeavours to expel the British from the peninsula. 

 He had spies in every European court, and so 

 ruled all diplomatic and political cabals as to 

 deserve the title the Empress of Russia gave him, 

 Le Cocker de I'Eiirope. His power had survived 

 the death of his patroness in 1764, but the rise of 

 Madame Dubarry, who succeeded Madame de Pom- 

 padour in the king's affections, gradually alien- 

 ated Louis from his able minister, who retired in 

 1770 to his magnificent estate of Chanteloup, where 

 he lived in princely splendour. After the accession 

 of Louis XVI. he received permission to return to 

 Paris, and was often consulted, but never recovered 

 his official position. He died May 7, 1785. 



Choke-Cherry, a name given to certain 

 nearly allied species of Cherry (q.v. ), natives of 

 North America, having small fruit in racemes, 

 like the Bird-cherry or Cherry-laurel (q.v.), from 

 which latter, however, they are easily distinguished 

 by their deciduous leaves. The fruit is at first rather 

 agreeable, but afterwards astringent in the mouth. 

 The species and varieties are not easily definable, 



but Prunus (Cerasus) virginiana, serotina, and. 

 borealis may be especially mentioned. The bark 

 is used as a febrifuge and tonic, under the name of 

 Wild Cherry Bark; and by distilling it with water, 

 a volatile oil is obtained from it, associated with, 

 hydrocyanic acid, called Oil of Wild Cherry. 



Choke-damp* also called after-damp or foul- 

 damp, is the carbonic acid gas given off by coal 

 which accumulates in coal-mines, and may suffo- 

 cate those exposed to it. It is distinguished from. 

 fire-damp, the marsh-gas or light carburetted 

 hydrogen which causes the explosions. See COAL, 

 MINING. 



Choking, in its slighter forms, is a very 

 familiar occurrence, and results from a morsel of 

 food or other solid, or even a drop of liquid, passing 

 into the Larynx (q.v.) or upper opening of the 

 windpipe, instead of the gullet, or in popular 

 parlance 'going down the wrong way.' It is 

 generally caused by a breath being suddenly drawn 

 in coughing, laughing, &c. while food or fluid is in 

 the mouth ; and a violent fit of coughing follows 

 till the offending substance is expelled from the 

 windpipe. Sometimes, however, a larger mass 

 e.g. a half -chewed piece of meat is drawn into- 

 the opening of the windpipe, completely blocking; 

 it, and arresting respiration altogether. This con- 

 dition is one of extreme danger ; the sufferer 

 becomes purple in the face, and if not at once 

 relieved will certainly and quickly die of suffoca- 

 tion. The obstructing substance is usually within 

 reach, and may often be dislodged if a bystander 

 promptly pushes his forefinger to the back of the 

 throat and attempts to draw it forward. A child 

 may sometimes be saved by holding it up by 

 the heels and shaking it, or slapping its back. 

 If these measures fail, a sharp-pointed knife, a 

 penknife for instance, must be promptly pushed 

 into the windpipe to admit air to it belowvthe 

 obstruction. See (under Trachea) TRACHEOTOMY ; 

 see also (ESOPHAGUS, PHARYNX. 



In cattle, the causes fall under two heads r 

 ( 1 ) those that depend on the material swallowed ; 

 and ( 2 ) those that depend on the animal swallowing. 

 Under the first head we find sharp-pointed objects 

 which become fixed into or entangled in the 

 membrane lining the throat and gullet ; solid 

 masses too large to pass on to the stomach ; dry 

 farinaceous materials which clog in the passage. 

 The second class of causes consists in inflammation 

 of the throat, or irritation of the organs of degluti- 

 tion ; constrictions of the passage ; ulceration of 

 the oesophagus, which is apt to follow choking, 

 and is the cause of a relapse ; lastly, without any 

 disease of the deglutitory organs, an animal may 

 be choked by eating too greedily, and imperfectly 

 masticating or salivating its food. 



The symptoms vary according to the position 

 of the obstruction. Many of the most alarming 

 symptoms arise from the paunch becoming dis- 

 tended by gas. See HOOVE. 



Remove the obstruction with the hand when 

 you can. Cause the animal to swallow the sub- 

 stance, if possible, by giving it water, oil, or Bella- 

 donna solution. Carefully push the offending 

 agent down by a probang, if it is possible to effect 

 this, and if withdrawal by the mouth is impractic- 

 able. In some cases the gullet has to be cut into- 

 by a qualified surgeon. After a case of choking, 

 keep the animal on soft food, and attend to its 

 general health, in order to avoid a relapse, which 

 is of frequent occurrence in cattle. Cattle are 

 most frequently choked by sliced turnips and 

 potatoes, and these should consequently be pulped 

 or mashed. 



CholecjStot'omy, the opening of the gall 

 bladder. See CALCULUS. 



