282 



CLAUDIUS I. 



CLAVAGELLA 



often deficient in taste and gracefulness. His 

 works have been edited by Gessner (1759), Bur- 

 mann (1760), Jeep (1879), and Birt (1892). 



Claudius I.. Roman emperor, whose full name 

 was Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus, was 

 the younger son of Drusus, brother of the Emperor 

 Tiberius and Antonia, and was born at Lyons in 

 Gaul, 10 B.C. He was naturally sickly and infirm, 

 and his education was neglected, or left to be cared 

 for by women and freedmen. His supposed im- 

 becility saved him from the cruelty of Caligula ; 

 but Claudius, in his privacy, had made consider- 

 able progress in the study of history, and wrote in 

 Latin and Greek several extensive works now lost. 

 After the assassination of Caligula, he was found 

 by the soldiers in a corner of the palace, where, in 

 dread, he had concealed himself. The praetorians 

 carried him forth, proclaimed him emperor, and 

 compelled his recognition by the senate and many 

 citizens who had hoped to restore the republic. 

 By giving largess to the troops who had raised 

 him to the throne, Claudius commenced the 

 baneful practice which subjected Rome to a mili- 

 tary despotism under the succeeding emperors. 

 The first acts of his reign seemed to give promise 

 of mild and just government, but in the year 42, 

 when a conspiracy against his life was detected, 

 his timidity led him to yield himself entirely to 

 the guidance of his third and most infamous wife, 

 Messalina, who, in concert with the freedmen 

 Pallas and Narcissus, practised cruelties and extor- 

 tions without restraint. The emperor meanwhile 

 lived in retirement, partly occupied in his studies, 

 and expended enormous sums in building, especially 

 in the famous Claudian Aqueduct (Aqua Claudia). 

 At the same time he ruled well though mildly, 

 and carried put the enlightened policy of extending 

 citizenship to the provincials. Abroad his arms 

 were victorious. Mauritania was made a Roman 

 province, the conquest of Britain was commenced, 

 and the frontier provinces in the east were settled. 

 At home the uxorious emperor continued to be 

 governed by his wives. Tacitus tells us that the 

 shameless Messalina, after abusing her blind and 

 doting husband by a series of the vilest profligacies, 

 went so far as to marry herself publicly to a 

 young lover, on which the emperor, at last awakened 

 to her wickedness and his own shame, put her 

 to death. He next married his own niece, the 

 equally vicious and more cruel Agrippina, who 

 procured his death by poison ( 54 A. D. ) in order to 

 secure the succession of Nero, her own son by an 

 earlier husband. 



Claudius, APPIUS, a Roman decemvir (451 

 and 450 B.C.), who gained the high favour of his 

 fellow-citizens by his ability and activity. In the 

 latter year, however, he began to show his real 

 aims towards absolute and illegal power. The 

 growing indignation of the Roman populace reached 

 a height on account of his grossly tyrannous action 

 towards Virginia, daughter of a respected plebeian 

 named Lucius Virginius, who was abroad with the 

 army. The proud patrician gained possession of 

 the person of the maiden by pretending that she 

 was the born slave of one of his clients. Her lover 

 Icilius summoned her father Virginius from the 

 army, but another mock-trial again adjudged the 

 girl to be the property of the decemvir's client. 

 To save his daughter from dishonour, the unhappy 

 father seized a knife and slew her. The popular 

 indignation and the father's appeal to the army 

 overthrew the decemviri, and the proud Appius 

 was flung into prison, where he died by his own 

 hand. The story is specially familiar to English 

 readers from Macaulay s Lays. The Claudian Gens 

 was one of the most numerous and important of 

 the patrician tribes of Rome ; and besides the sons 



and grandsons of the decemvir, there were numer- 

 ous persons of distinction who bore the name of 

 Appius. 



Claus, KARL, zoologist, born 2d January 1835, 

 at Cassel, became professor successively at Wiirz- 

 burg (1860), Marburg, Gb'ttingen, and Vienna 

 ( 1873 ). His principal work is the Grundzuge der 

 Zoologie (4th ed. 1878-82). 



Claus, SANTA. See NICOLAS ( ST). 



Clause. See DEED. 



Clause!, BERTRAND, a French marshal, was 

 born at Mirepoix, Ariege, 12th December 1772, and 

 obtained distinction in the Italian and Austrian 

 campaigns of Napoleon ; but more especially as 

 commander in Spain, after the battle of Sala- 

 manca in 1812. Condemned to death as a traitor 

 on the return of the Bourbons, he was in 1820 per- 

 mitted to return from America to France ; com- 

 manded the army and was governor in Algeria in 

 1830 ; and was made governor-general of Algeria in 

 1835. He returned to France in 1836, voted with 

 the opposition in the Chamber, and died 21st April 

 1842. See ALGERIA. 



Clausewitz. KARL VON, a very distinguished 

 Prussian general, whose writings prepared the way 

 for a complete revolution in the theory of war, was 

 born 1st June 1780 at Burg. He served with dis- 

 tinction in several campaigns in the Prussian and 

 in the Russian service, in 1815 became chief of a 

 Prussian army corps, and was ultimately director 

 of the army school, and inspector of artillery. He 

 died of cholera at Breslau, 16th November 1831. Of 

 his works the best known are his great book on 

 war, Vom Krieg (3 vols. 4th ed. 1880), and his life 

 of Scharnhorst. See his Life by Schwartz ( Berlin, 

 1877). 



ClaushlS, RUDOLF, a great German physicist, 

 born 2d January 1822 at Koslin in Pomerania. 

 He studied at Berlin, and afterwards lectured on 

 natural philosophy as privat-docent at Berlin, and 

 as professor at the Zurich Polytechnic School. In 

 1869 he was appointed to the chair of Natural 

 Philosophy at Bonn, and here he died, August 24, 

 1888. He was elected a foreign member of the 

 Royal Society in 1868, and in 1879 was given its 

 highest honour, the Copley Medal. His scientific 

 labours cover parts of the field of optics and of 

 electricity, but his especial work was liis contribu- 

 tion to the science of thermo-dynamics, the honour 

 of establishing which on a scientific basis he divides 

 with Rankine and Thomson. His mathematical 

 methods he also applied to the theory of the steam- 

 engine, the dynamical or kinetic theory of gases, 

 and to electricity and electro-dynamics. His great 

 work is his Abhandlungen uber die mechanische 

 Wdrmetheorie (1864, and 1867), which in its second 

 edition took a more systematic form as vol. i. , Die 

 mechanische Wdrmetheorie (1876), and vol. ii., Die 

 mechanische Behandlung der Electrizitat (1879). 

 Other books are Ueber das Wesen der Wdrme 

 (1857), and Die Potentialfunction und das Potential 

 (3ded. 1877). 



Clausthal. See KLAUSTHAL. 



Clavagella, or CLUB-SHELL, a genus of marine 

 Lamellibranchiate Molluscs of the same family 

 with Aspergillum (q.v.). They mostly live in 

 excavated holes in rocks or in masses of coral. 

 The ordinary form of the bivalve shell is curiously 

 modified. One valve (the right) is fixed to the 

 inner surface of the chamber in which the animal 

 lives, and is continued without interruption into 

 a secondary shell-tube, which extends from the 

 chamber outwards, and varies considerably in 

 length in different species. The left valve is free 

 and movable on the right. The mode of excava- 

 tion is not known. Six living species of wide 



