310 



COAL 



to ooal, the proportion of oxygen and hydrogen 

 decreases, these substances being given on in the 

 form of marsh-gas and carbonic acid in the process 

 of decay. 



On the continent of Europe, productive coal-fields 

 occur in Belgium, France, Prussia, Spain, Silesia, 

 and in Russia the only important Russian coal- 

 field being that of Donetz, on the north shore of the 

 Sea of Azov. Coal is also found in India, China 

 (where several extensive coal-fields occur, in which 

 coal has been worked from a very early period), 

 Japan, and the Malayan Archipelago, in Australia 

 and New Zealand, and in Africa. There is evi- 

 dence of promising coal-deposits in several South 

 American countries, but, owing to the great supply 

 of wood in their forests, there is little temptation 

 to work them. Considerable importance already 

 attaches, however, to the mines of Chili ( q. v. ). In 

 Canada there are small, though valuable, coal- 

 fields ; but in the United States enormous fields of 

 fossil fuel are found. The entire area of these is 

 about 200,000 sq. m., being 83 times greater than 

 the area of the coal-fields of Great Britain. But 

 although the coal-measures of the States are of 

 vast extent, and contain many valuable coal-seams 

 a few of them 40 and even 50 feet thick at 

 certain places it has been doubted whether the 

 amount of workable coal in them has not been 

 exaggerated. In proportion to the extent of the 

 seams, the quantity of coal annually raised in the 

 States is small, and amounted to 160,000,000 short 

 tons of 2000 Ib. each in 1892. The distribution of 

 the coal-fields of Britain and North America is dis- 

 cussed at CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. 



Coal-supply of Britain. The probable duration 

 of the British coal-supply is a question which 

 until recent years rarely excited any public 

 anxiety. Early in the 19th century attention 

 had been called to the subject by Sir John 

 Sinclair, Mr Robert Bald, and Dr Buckland, but 

 the existing store of coal was generally believed 

 to be practically inexhaustible its exhaustion at 

 all events seemed to be relegated to so remote a 

 date as to relieve the nation from all anxiety on 

 the matter. In recent years, however, Professor 

 Hull, from a more accurate survey of British coal- 

 fields than was possible before the map of the 

 Geological Survey had been published, came to the 

 conclusion in 1860, that at the then rate of produc- 

 tion we had enough coal to last for 1000 years. 

 But as the rate of consumption was yearly increas- 

 ing, it was obvious that our coal-supply might not 

 last nearly so long. In 100 years, as Professor 

 Jevons showed, if the same rate of increase con- 

 tinued, the annual consumption would be415,000,000 

 tons, and our coal-fields by that time would be 

 nearly exhausted. A Royal Commission was 

 appointed in 1866 to consider the whole question, 

 and came to the conclusion in 1871 that at the then 

 rate of consumption there was enough coal to last 

 for 1273 years, but with a constantly increasing 

 consumption this term would necessarily be re- 

 duced. The amount of coal at all depths down to 

 4000 feet was estimated at the date of the Royal 

 Commissioners' Report to be 90,207 million tons, 

 while including the coals at greater depths, the total 

 was 146,480 millions of tons. Although, therefore, 

 we know approximately the extent of available coal, 

 we cannot tell how long that coal will last, for we 

 cannot say whether the present rate of consumption 

 will be maintained, increased, or diminished in the 

 future. It seems most probable, however, that the 

 rate of increase of coal used per head of the popula- 

 tion will follow a diminishing ratio, and that it will 

 be 300 or 400 years before the coal-supplies of these 

 islands begin to fail. 



Coal-trade. The production and sale of coal, like 

 every other important branch of industry, was long 



fettered with legislative regulations. At a very 

 early period, the corporation of the city of London 

 undertook the duty of either weighing or measur- 

 ing the coal brought into the port, and by a series 

 of statutes commencing with 7 Edward VI. chap. 

 7, the mayor and aldermen of London, and the jus- 

 tices of the counties, were empowered to fix the 

 price of coal to be sold by retail ; and in case of 

 refusal by the parties to sell at the prices fixed, to 

 enter their Avharves, or other places of deposit, and 

 to cause it to be sold at the prices which they had 

 set. In addition to the general supervision which 

 they thus possessed, and the sums which they were 

 empowered to exact for their trouble, the corpora- 

 tions of London and other towns have exacted, and 

 still continue to exact, dues on coal for local pur- 

 poses. These were first imposed in London in 

 1667, after the great fire, in order to enable the cor- 

 poration to repair the ravages which it had com- 

 mitted ; and they have been since continued as a 

 fund for civic improvements, though, as M'Culloch 

 has remarked, no improvement could be equal to 

 a reduction in the price of coal. In the reign of 

 William III. a general tax, payable to government, 

 was laid on all sea-borne coal a tax which was in 

 the highest degree unjust to places which were 

 dependent for their supply on the coasting trade, 

 and oppressive to the whole country, inasmuch as 

 it amounted to more than 50 per cent, on the price 

 paid to the owner at the pit's mouth. The tax 

 varied in amount, not only at different periods, 

 reaching its highest point of 9s. 4d. per chaldron 

 during the great war, but also in different parts of 

 the country, being higher in London and the south 

 of England, and lower in Ireland and Wales, whilst 

 Scotland for a considerable period was altogether 

 exempt. The tax itself, with all its inequalities, 

 was abolished in 1830 ; and the tax on coal, 

 long collected for local purposes in London, was 

 abolished in 1889. The repeal, in 1845, of the 

 duty on coal exported to foreign countries was 

 a measure of much more doubtful policy. The 

 annual quantity of coal exported from Great Britain 

 duringtheyearsfrom 1890tol898 was from 25,000,000 

 to 38,000,000 tons. For the regulation and in- 

 spection of mines, explosions, &c. , see MINING ; 

 where also mention is made of the varying arrange- 

 ments as to the proprietorship of mines. The con- 

 dition of colliers and salters in Britain is discussed 

 at SLAVERY. For coal-tar products, see COAL- 

 TAR, DYEING. See also the articles FUEL, GAS 

 AND GASES, PETROLEUM. 



Coal-whipping is the name given to a mode of 

 unloading coal from vessels at anchor to barges, 

 which convey them to the wharves. When the 

 number of these men at work on the Thames was 

 about 2000, public-house keepers got into the habit 

 of acting as middlemen ; the trade fell into such a 

 state, that the men were virtually slaves to the 



Eublicans. They asked for the interference of the 

 jgislature. An act was passed in 1843, and a 

 Coal-whippers' Board was formed, which contracted 

 for the whipping of ships of coal, and employed the 

 men ; and other acts were passed in 1846 and 

 1851. But in 1856 the coal-owners agreed with the 

 Board of Trade to maintain a Whipping Office, to 

 give the men a refuge from the publicans, but with- 

 out interfering with the liberty of coal-shippers. 

 The necessity for coal-whippers has been much 

 lessened by the use of hydraulic or steam machinery 

 in discharging. 



See Green and Miall, Coal: History and Uses (1878) ; 

 Galloway, History of Coal-mining in Great Britain (1882) ; 

 Hull, Coal-fields of Great Britain (1880) ; Pameley, The 

 Colliery Manager's Handbook ( 1891 ) ; Meldola, Coal and 

 what we get from it (1891) ; H. ~W. Hughes, A Text-book 

 of Coal-mining (1892); D. M. D. Stuart, Coal Dust an 

 Explosive Agent (1894). 



