400 



CONCORDAT 



CONCRETION 



corrections, 1769) ; Dr R. Young's (1884) and Rev. 

 J. B. R. Walker's (1894) are more recent. The 

 Englishman's Hebrew and Greek Concordances 

 (1860) deserve mention. The first Concordance of 

 the Koran appeared at Calcutta in 1811, but was 

 superseded by that of Fliigel ( 1842). The Complete 

 Concordance to Shakespeare, compiled by Mrs Cow- 

 den Clarke (1845 ; new ed. Lond. 1881), and that by 

 John Bartlett (1894) are admirable. Concordances 

 have also been prepared to Pope, Milton, Cowper, 

 Tennyson, Dante, Chaucer, and Shelley. 



Concordat ( Lat. concordatum, ' a thing agreed 

 upon ' ), though sometimes used of secular treaties, 

 is generally employed to denote an agreement made 

 between the pope, as the head of the Roman 

 Catholic Church, and a secular government, on 

 matters which concern the interests of its Roman 

 Catholic subjects. Such concordats may take 

 either of two forms. The pope may, after con- 

 sultation with the government in question, issue 

 a bull regulating the affairs of the Roman Catholic 

 Church in the country, the contents of the said 

 bull being afterwards ratified by the government 

 and incorporated in the law of the land. Or again, 

 a formal treaty may be drawn up and signed by 

 plenipotentiaries on both sides. Various theories 

 have been held on the obligation of such contracts. 

 Secular jurists have denied that they impose any 

 real obligation on the state, which may annul them 

 at pleasure. Extreme Ultramontanes, on the other 

 hand, have regarded concordats as privileges which 

 the pope grants for the time without entering into 

 any contract properly so called, while the more 

 moderate of Roman canonists recognise a contract 

 binding both sides. As a matter of fact, no modern 

 government can engage that its stipulations with 

 the pope will be respected by its successors in 

 office. Thus the Austrian concordat was secured 

 by the clerical party in 1855 and swept away by 

 their opponents in 1870. The famous and more 

 enduring concordat by which the church in France 

 was re-established after the Revolution was con- 

 cluded by Napoleon (as first consul) and Pius VII. 

 in 1801. 



Concordia, a town of the Argentine state of 

 Entre Rios, on the Uruguay, 302 miles N. of Buenos 

 Ayres by river. It has a custom-house, and a 

 river-trade exceeded only by that of Buenos Ayres 

 and Rosario, exporting salted meat and Paraguay 

 tea. It has railway connection with Parana, Uru- 

 guay, and South Brazil. Pop. 12,000. 



Concordiae Formula. See AUGSBURG CON- 

 FESSION, CONFESSIONS, CHEMNITZ (MARTIN). 



Concrete. There is but little difference be- 

 tween concrete and coarse mortar. The mortar used 

 in the masonry of castles and churches erected 

 during the middle ages is in fact a concrete with 

 small pebbles instead of the larger ones used in 

 modern concrete. Any mixture of lime, sand, and 

 water, with broken stones or bricks, bits of slag, 

 gravel, or other hard material, is called a concrete. 

 The hard lumps are termed the aggregate, and the 

 mortar in which they are embedded is called the 

 matrix. The mixture varies with the nature and 

 quality of the materials, but it often consists of 1 

 part of quicklime, 2 of sand, and 5 of gravel. It is 

 better to use such a material as broken stone rather 

 than water-rolled gravel, which has often too smooth 

 a surface. Lime concrete, as the kind above de- 

 scribed may be termed, is used principally for founda- 

 tions, that is, a thick bed of it is formed below the 

 lowest course of stones or bricks in walls, in cases 

 where the ground itself is not sufficiently firm and 

 solid. Not unfrequently, in some countries, walls 

 themselves are formed of concrete, by laying a foot 

 or two of it in height at a time between boards, and 

 giving it some time to harden. It then forms an 



artificial stone. Other methods of building walls 

 of concrete are in use ( see BUILDING ). 



Portland cement concrete is made either by 

 mixing it with gravel alone, or more generally by 

 using the cement along with sand and broken 

 stones. The concrete used at Portland Breakwater 

 Fort and at Cork Harbour have nearly the same 

 composition. The cubic yard of it at the former 

 place was made by using of Portland cement 5 

 cubic feet, of sand 10 cubic feet, and of broken 

 stones (not more than S^-inch gauge) 28 cubic feet, 

 along with 23J gallons of water. A concrete with 

 these materials in much the same proportion has 

 been used at other places, but different proportions 

 are also employed. Portland cement being the 

 binding material in this concrete, the question 

 arises whether there is sufficient experience of its 

 durability, especially where it is exposed to the 

 action of sea-water, to warrant its employment in 

 structural works of great or even of moderate size. 

 See CEMENTS. 



Concrete made of the hydraulic lime from Teil 

 in France, which contains 66 per cent, of silicate 

 of lime, has been employed in the construction of 

 breakwaters and similar works at Cherbourg, 

 Marseilles, and other places. The Teil hydraulic 

 lime is one of the strongest known, and the con- 

 crete made with it has resisted the action of sea- 

 water for many years. Ordinary lime concrete does 

 not set under water. 



A concrete is made of broken stones and tar, about 

 12 gallons of the latter being used for every cubic 

 yard of concrete. Bitumen or asphalt is better 

 than gas-tar for this purpose, and either may be 

 hardened by the introduction of dried and pounded 

 lime, clay, or brick-dust. The materials should be 

 heated before being mixed with the tar or bitumen. 

 For backing armour-plates in forts a concrete of 

 cast-iron turnings, asphalt, and pitch has been 

 used. Gravel mixed with rather more than a 

 thirtieth part, by bulk, of iron borings, was suc- 

 cessfully used as a concrete at Stranraer pier. 



Concrete, a term in logic opposed to abstract. 

 A concrete notion is the notion of an object as it 

 exists in nature, invested with all its qualities, as 

 any particular flower, leaf, or tree ; an abstract 

 notion is the notion of any attribute of that flower, 

 leaf, or tree, such as its colour, form, or height ; 

 qualities which may be thought of independently 

 of the objects in which they inhere, though they 

 cannot so exist. The abstract method of handling 

 a subject is adapted to speculation and reasoning ; 

 the concrete, to poetic effect and impressive illus- 

 tration. 



Concretion, in Medicine, a formation of solid 

 unorganised masses within the body, either by 

 chemical precipitation from the fluids, or by the 

 accidental aggregation of solids introduced into 

 the system from without. In the former case, a 

 concretion is termed a Calculus (q.v. ); in the 

 latter, the concretion may be either wholly com- 



Eosed of solids foreign to the body, or these may 

 e mingled with the elements of the secretions, as 

 with mucus, or calculous matter. Thus beans, 

 peas, needles, &c., introduced into the cavities of 

 the body, have become the nuclei of concretions, 

 by attracting around them mucus, or crystalline 

 deposits from the urine. The most remarkable 

 forms of concretion, however, are perhaps those 

 formed in the stomach and intestines of man and 

 the lower animals, from the more solid and indi- 

 gestible parts of the food, or of substances impro- 

 perly swallowed. Thus, young women have been 

 known to acquire the habit of swallowing their 

 own hair to a great extent ; and very large con- 

 cretions have been thus formed, which have proved 

 fatal, by obstructing the passage of food. The 



