COPYHOLD 



COPYING 



467 



serves only as a memorial of the derivation of this 

 species of estate from the estates grant<-<l in <>ll 

 times to the bomUmen or Villein* (q.v.), which 

 were <>i CMUIM- returnable at the pleasure of the 

 lord. Hut the will of the lord in now absolutely 

 run trolled by the ciiHtom of the manor, which 

 forms the law of the tenure; and as this custom 

 nniM l)c immemorial -i.e. extending to the reign of 

 Itiehanl II. no copyhold can now be created. 



The custom of each manor may vary in important 

 particular*. In some the lands are held Tor life 

 only, generally, however, with a customary right 

 to renewal or to appoint the successor ; in some 

 they descend according to particular rules ; in most, 

 however, they descend according to the ordinary 

 rules of succession. But the custom, whatever it 

 may be, cannot be altered. The tenant cannot, 

 for instance, entail his land unless the custom 

 warrants him. The freehold remaining in the lord 

 iiirlmles a right to minerals and timber, but in the 

 absence of special custom he cannot remove these 

 without the consent of the tenant. The tenant 

 also in the general case cannot lease his land for 

 more than one year. This tenure makes the in- 

 tervention of the lord necessary in every act of 

 alienation, which therefore resembles the Scottish 

 procedure of resignation of a feu, and is called 

 a surrender and admittance. 



Various money-payments are due by the copy- 

 holder to the lord. These are divided into the 

 rents, an annual payment of the nature of the 

 Scottish feu-duty ; fines, payments on particular 

 occasions, such as alienation or succession, like the 

 Scottish composition to the inferior ; and heriots, 

 or the best piece of personal property, to which, on 

 the death of the copyholder, the lord becomes 

 entitled. As to fines, it may be observed that the 

 courts of law have fixed the extreme amount that 

 can be exacted at two years' rent of the land. 



In the case of an heir succeeding there is no 

 surrender, but there is admittance only upon pay- 

 ment of the customary fine, and it is enforced by 

 a customary penalty. A mortgage is effected by a 

 surrender, upon condition that the money is repaid, 

 and the admittance takes place only in event of 

 failure of payment. A copyhold may, in like 

 manner, be devised by will, the devisee being 

 admitted on the death of the devisor. 



The inconveniences and loss accruing through the 

 variety of customs to which copyright lands are 

 subject have led the legislature to make provision 

 for their gradual extinction. By the copyhold 

 commissioners all the services due to the lord of 

 the manor may be commuted fora fixed rent. The 

 lord is also authorised to enfranchise or convert 

 into freehold the lands by agreement with their 

 owners. Since 1853 either the lord or the tenant 

 so admitted may compel enfranchisement on pay- 

 ment, either of a fixed sum where it is at the 

 instance of the lord, or of an annual rent where it 

 is at the instance of the tenant, fixed in both cases 

 by the commissioners. The copyhold commis- 

 sioners are now incorporated witn the Inclosure 

 Commissioners and the Tithe Commissioners, under 

 the name of the Land Commissioners for England, 

 who publish an annual blue-book. Upwards of 

 16,000 enfranchisements have been made, the 

 compensation amounting to considerably above 

 2,000,000. 



Copying is a term in general use for a great 

 many different processes, nut may be described 

 generally as the reproduction, usually either on an 

 enlarged or reduced scale, of any drawing, map, or 

 other work of art. A few of the methods employed 

 may be shortlv described. If the copy is to be the 

 same size as the original, the easiest way is to trace 

 it. A piece of tracing-paper ( which may l>e bought 

 at any stationer's ) is put over the drawing, and the 



principal lines gone over with pencil. The back of 

 tip- tracing U then rubbed with black lead or 

 ruddle, anil put on the clean paj>er on which the 

 eop\ is to be made ; the traced lin-*> are gone over 

 witn a hard point, and thus indicated faintly on 

 the paper. Guided by the traced lines, the copy 

 can then be drawn in. It is usual to have tne 

 ruddle or black lead on a separate piece of thin 

 paper, and interposed lietween the tracing and the 

 paper. When tne copy is required of a different 

 size from the original, the simplest way is to sketch 

 it by hand and eye, but where more mechanical 

 accuracy is required, the method of squares is very 

 useful. The original is covered with squares of 

 any convenient size by pencil lines or threads ; a 

 piece of paper for the copy is prepared with a cor- 

 responding number of squares, of a smaller or 

 larger size, according as the copy is wanted smaller 

 or larger. These squares must bear the same pro- 

 portion to the squares on the original, as the copy 

 is to bear to the original. It is then a compara- 

 tively easy matter to copy in each square the part 

 of the original in the corresponding square. To 

 avoid confusion if the squares are small, it is well 

 to number them along each side of the drawing. 

 If it is not convenient to cover the original drawing 

 with pencil lines, or to tie threads over the face of 

 it, a very good way is to draw the squares on a 

 piece of tracing-paper, and put that over the 

 original ; the same tracing-paper will do any number 

 of drawings. A pair of proportional compasses 

 (see COMPASSES) will be found very useful for fix- 

 ing the proportional size of the squares. Any 

 drawing consisting principally of straight lines, 

 such as a plan, can be conveniently reduced by con- 

 structing a scale to suit the reduced size required. 

 The lines of the original are measured by its scale, 

 and the same proportion of the smaller scale gives 

 the necessary measurement. The Pantograph ( q. v. ) 

 is another means of making a reduction or enlarge- 

 ment, but is very seldom used now. It is only 

 accurate in a general way. Perhaps the simplest 

 and most exact method is to get the original photo- 

 graphed to the required size ; the copy can then be 

 traced on to clean paper as already described. 



The copying of letters and other documents for 

 commercial purposes is usually done by means of 

 the ordinary copying-press, which is so familiar in 

 every counting-nouse as to need no detailed descrip- 

 tion. A letter written with specially prepared ink 

 is transferred to another piece of paper by means 

 of damp and pressure. Common ink thickened 

 with a little sugar will serve as copying-ink. 

 Many modifications of this arrangement nave been 

 devised for producing a number of copies of cir- 

 culars, &c. from one written copy, and are known 

 as 'graphs' (hektograph, &c.). A document 

 written with the ink prepared for the purpose is 

 transferred by pressure with the hand to a gelatin- 

 ous slab, from which as many as fifty or sixty 

 copies, more or less distinct, can be retransferred 

 by rubbing with the hand. A very useful method 

 or manifold writing is largely employed in tele- 

 graphic news work, and for duplicating invoices by 

 retail tradesmen. Carlwnised paper is put between 

 two or three or more sheet* of thin paper ('flimsy'), 

 and thus, whatever is written on the top sheet by a 

 hardish pencil is duplicated on the others. When 

 an indefinite number of copies of any drawing or 

 other subject is required, there are many printing 

 processes which may be employed. Letters or 

 circulars, if written with lithographic ink, can be 

 transferred to stone, and any number printed. 

 Engineers' or architects' drawings, or any other 

 drawing executed in fine, can be very successfully 

 reproduced in any size by the photo-lithograph pro- 

 cess, which will be described under LITHOGRAPHY. 

 If required for block or letterpress printing, then 



