520 



COUNTEKFEIT 



COUNTERPOINT 



forming the highest class of the lower nobility. Of 

 the former class the larger number, as the price 

 of their acquiescence in the abolition of the old 

 German empire, received the title of prince, and 

 very few now exist. The merely titular counts 

 belonging to the lower nobility are very numerous. 



Counterfeit. See COINING. 



Counterforts, the buttresses or arches behind 

 the revetments or retaining walls of the ditches of 

 permanent fortifications. They help to support the 

 earth above them and make it more difficult to 

 form a Breach (q.v.). 



Counter-guard is a low outwork designed to 

 cover the revetment of a bastion or ravelin from 

 the fire of the enemy's breaching batteries. It is 

 separated from them by a narrow ditch, and lest 

 the enemy should establish a battery on it when 

 captured, the terre-plein, or flat space behind its 

 parapet, is made very narrow, bee FOETIFICA- 

 TION. 



Counter-irritants, agents applied to the 

 skin so as to redden ( rubef acients ), to vesicate 

 ( vesicatories or Blisters, q.v. ), or to produce pus- 

 tules, purulent issues, or even sloughs of skin 

 and of the subcutaneous textures. The milder 

 counter-irritants are mustard (see CATAPLASM), 

 turpentine applied on warm cloths, and spirit or 

 acetic acid in lotion. The stronger are blisters of 

 Cantharis (q-v. ) or of ammonia ; of Croton-oil (q.v.) 

 or Tartar Emetic (q.v.), in ointment ; setons, 

 caustic or pea-issues, and the moxa ; and above 

 all, the actual Cautery (q.v. ) or hot iron. None 

 of the stronger counter-irritants should be used 

 without careful consideration and medical advice ; 

 great mischief is often done by their careless or 

 improper use. Counter-irritants relieve internal 

 pain, check inflammations, and tend to promote 

 the absorption of morbid effusions. Their effect is 

 probably due mainly to reflex action, produced by 

 the impression they cause upon the nerves of the 

 skin to which they are applied. 



Amongst horses, counter-irritants are much used 

 for strains and diseases of the joints, but should 

 never be applied, as they too often are, in recent 

 cases, or whilst the part is hot or inflamed. Can- 

 tharidine preparations, or ointment of biriiodide of 

 mercury, are the most convenient. For cows, use 

 fomentations, followed by the smart infriction of 

 mustard-paste; for dogs, soap-liniment, strength- 

 ened, if required, by ammonia or turpentine. 



Countermine, a subterranean way to counter- 

 act besiegers' mines. See MINES (MILITARY), SIEGE. 

 Counterpoint, in Music, has been defined as 



' the art of combining melodies. ' The name arose 

 from the early system of notation by points. When 

 another part or melody was added to one already 

 represented by a row of points, this was called 

 punctum contrapunctum. A single melody is 

 usually taken as the ' subject,' and the part or 

 parts added are called the 'counterpoint.' When 

 this is done according to the numerous and strin- 

 gent rules of the old authorities, it is called strict 

 counterpoint ; but in modern music these rules are 

 much relaxed. The devices of counterpoint are, 

 however, still largely relied on ; Wagner, the 

 greatest innovator of our time, being also one of 

 the greatest practical contrapuntists. The aim of 

 Beethoven in his later works to make every part 

 sing, and not be a mere filling up of the harmony, 

 may be referred to as illustrating the object of these 

 devices ; and there is no doubt that as used by the 

 classical writers, they are the source of some of the 

 grandest effects in music. 



In simple counterpoint the parts are written above 

 or below the subject without regard to their capa- 

 bility of being transposed. It is divided into 

 different species, according as the added parts con- 

 tain one, two, or four notes against each note of 

 the subject, or are written in syncopated notes, or 

 have a combination of all or any of these, when it 

 is called ' florid. ' The so-called ' rules ' are in effect 

 limitations of the degrees in which the parts may 

 progress e.g. the prohibition of consecutive octaves 

 and fifths. The general principle of them is to 

 secure complete independence of melodic motion in 

 the parts, while at the same time the laws of har- 

 mony are observed. When the parts reach the 

 number of eight or more in vocal music, they are 

 sometimes divided into diiferent choirs, which sing 

 alternately together and in antiphony. A famous 

 example of this class is Tallis's motet ' Spem in 

 alium non habui,' for forty voices, in eight choirs, 

 each of five voices. In double counterpoint the 

 subject and counterpoint are so written that each 

 may form the bass to the other. When in this 

 transposition the upper part is taken to the octave 

 below, or vice versd, it is called double counter- 

 point at the octave ; but it may also be at any 

 other interval, the fourth, fifth, &c., or even at two 

 different ones. In treble counterpoint each of three 

 melodies can be put as the bass to the others ; and 

 similarly in quadruple and quintuple counterpoint ; 

 but counterpoint beyond double can only be at the 

 octave, as the other intervals are impracticable. 

 One or more free parts may be added to fill in the 

 harmony. The following instance of quintuple 

 counterpoint is taken from the finale of Mozart's 

 ' Jupiter ' Symphony : 





33EEEE 





Among the other devices of counterpoint may be 

 mentioned those of contrary motion, augmentation, 

 and diminution, the latter two referring to the 

 time- values of the notes. See IMITATION. 



The history of the art of counterpoint can be 

 traced step by step from its beginnings in the rude 

 efforts at part-wilting, called organum, barbarous 

 to modern ears, in medieval church music, of which 



