I" 



is 



<KON.II: 



pos.sr-.-rc I !p,-i,,ir MI uill ever [m.- i-s a^ain. ' Hul 

 tin- hand tluit had HO exalted could equally al-.-i-c 

 him. The hatred all men here him, the Catholic 

 'ion, mid Henry's aversion to Anne of Cleves, 

 the cojir-e Lutheran consort of OromwtU'sehooafaig, 



combined to ell'ert his ruin : less than eight weeks 

 after his elevation to the earldom he wan arrested 

 and h wlxed in the Tower. His abject entreaties 

 for ' Mercy, mercy !' availed him nothing; as little 

 did his liithy revehitiims of Henry's discourse with 

 him touching Anne of Cleves. Condemned under 

 a 1'ill of attainder, his own favourite engine of 

 tvrruinv. he was bungUngly beheaded on Tower 

 Hill, Jsil, July 1540. See Mr Gardner's article 

 in the ia<-tiitiiry of National Biography (vol. xiii. 

 1888); Dean Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of 

 1'niifi-rbnrif (vol. vi. chap. 1, 18G8); Professor 

 Brewer's article on 'The Royal Supremacy' in 

 ,*h St,/icn (1881) ; works cited under HENRY 

 VIII. ; and two articles in the Antiquarian 

 tine for 18S2 by Mr John Phillips of Putney. 



Croilje, PlKT, a Transvaal general, born in 1835, 

 took a leading part in the wars with Britain in 1881 

 and in IS'.lti 1<MK). After a skilful and determined 

 resistance to Lord Methuen at Magersfontein, 

 lie surrendered with 4000 of his army to Lord 

 Roberts on the M odder River on 27th February 

 1900. He was sent with other Boer prisoners to 

 St Helena. 



Croiistadt, a strongly fortified Russian sea- 

 wrt, 20 miles \V. of St Petersburg, on a narrow 



land 7 miles long, at the mouth of the Neva. 

 Cronstadt is at once the greatest naval station and 

 the most flourishing commercial port of Russia. It 

 was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, after taking 

 the island from the Swedes ( 1 703 ). Its fortifications 

 command every approach to St Petersburg. They 

 are all built of granite, and armed with the 

 heaviest ordnance. The place, indeed, was con- 

 sidered by Sir Charles Napier, who reconnoitred 

 it during the Russian war of 1854-55, so impreg- 

 nable that it \vould have been utter madness to 

 make any attempt upon it. Cronstadt, which is 

 the seat of the Russian Admiralty, has three har- 

 bours : the east, intended for vessels of war, and 

 capable of accommodating thirty ships of the line ; 

 the middle harbour, where vessels are fitted up and 

 repaired, and which is connected with the former 

 by a broad canal ; and the west or Merchant's 

 Harbour, for the merchant-shipping, with capacity 

 for 1000 vessels. Since 1884 St Petersburg is con- 

 nected with Cronstadt by a ship-canal 200 feet wide 

 and 22 feet deep. Cronstadt contains a cathedral, 

 a statue of Peter the Great, and a British seamen's 

 hospital ( 1867). In 1891 a 135-ton Krupp gun was 

 put in i>osition. Pop. 42,683. 



Cronstadt, in Hungary. See KRONSTADT. 



Cronus. See SATURN. 



Crook* GEORGE, American soldier, born in 

 Ohio in 1828, graduated at West Point in 1852, 

 served in California till 1861, and was actively 

 engaged throughout the civil war, in which he rose 

 to the rank of major-general. He served against 

 the Indians in Idaho ( 1866-72), in Arizona ( 1872-75), 

 and crushed the great rising in Wyoming and 

 Montana in 1875-77. In 1882 he returned to 

 Arizona, where he controlled the Indians on the 

 southern frontier, and induced them to take np 

 farms and become peaceable. Died March 21, 1890. 



Crooked Island. See BAHAMAS. 



Crookes, SIR WILLIAM, a great physicist and 

 chemist, horn in London in 1832, was a pupil and 

 assistant of Hofmann at the Royal College of 

 Chemistry, next superintended the meteorological 

 department of the Radcliffe Olwervatory, and 

 lectured on chemistry at the Science College, 



CROSS 



581 



Chester. In 1859 he founded the Chemical Newt, 

 and in 1864 became also editor of the (Quarterly 

 Journal of Science. He wan elected F. R.8. in 

 lsd.'{, vice-president of the Chemical Society in 

 187(5, member of council of the Royal Society the 

 year after, and in 1880 was awarded bv the 

 French Academie des Sciences an extraordinary 

 prize of 3000 francs and a gold medal. He w an 

 authority of the first rank on sanitary questions, 

 especially the disposal of the sewage of towns, and 

 his method of producing extreme vacua gave a 

 great impulse to incandescent electric lighting. 

 His original researches in chemistry and physic* 

 led to the discovery of the metal thallium in 1861. 

 of the sodium amalgamation process for separating 

 gold and silver from their ores in 1865, and of 

 important discoveries in molecular physics and 

 radiant matter, besides the invention of the 

 Radiometer (q.v.). He is the author of Select 

 Methods of Chemical Analysis ( 1871 ), and of works 

 on beetroot sugar manufacture, dyeing, calico-print- 

 ing, and sewage, and has translated books on 

 chemistry and metallurgy. ' Crookes Tubes' are 

 VacuumTubes (q.v. ) ; and see RUNTGEN, GAS. For 

 Crookes's spiritualistic views, see Sl'liilTUALlSM. 

 Crookes was made a K.C.B. in 1897, ami was Pres- 

 ident of the British Association in 1898. 



Crookliaven, a fishing village of County Cork, 

 30 miles SW. of Skilibereen, on a fine bay. 



Cropredy Bridge* near Ban bury, gives name 

 to a royalist success (29th June 1644). 



Croquet, an open-air game, in which two or 

 more players endeavour to drive wooden balls, by 

 means of long-handled mallets, through a series of 

 arches set in the ground according to 

 some pattern. The object of each 

 player is to make the complete circle 

 of six to ten hoops or arches ; but dur- 

 ing the course of the game he may 

 have the progress of his ball retarded 

 by his opponents, or assisted by his 

 partners ; and these friendly aids and 

 hostile attacks constitute the chief in- 

 terest of croquet. The game seems to 

 be substantially a revival of the old 

 game of Pall Mall, which gave its name 

 to what is now the well-known London 

 street, and to other places in England. 

 Pall Mall, played with ball ( Ital. palln ) 

 and mailet (Ital. maglta), came from 

 France into England early in the 17th 

 century, and died out in the 18th. 

 Croquet (Fr. croqtter, 'to crack') be- 

 came a popular game about 1850, was 

 the great summer social game during 

 1860-70, but was after alnjut 1875 super- 

 seded by lawn -tennis, to revive about 

 1897. A croquet-ground should be a 

 well-rolled level grass plat or lawn, not 

 less than 30 yards long by 20 yards wide ; 

 a full-sized croquet-ground measures 40 

 yards by 30 yards. 



Crosier, a staff 5 feet long, sur- 

 mounted by a cross, and borne by or 

 l>efore an archbishop on solemn occa- 

 sions. It is generallv hollow, gilt, and 

 richly ornamented. The crosier differs 

 entirely from the Pastoral Staff (q.v.), 

 with which it is often nevertheless con- 

 foundedthe latter having a circular 

 head, in the form of a crook. The illus- 

 tration is of Archbishop Warhain's 

 crosier, from Canterbury Cathedral. 



Cross* The cross was a common Crosier, 

 instrument of capital punishment among 

 the ancients ; and the death of the cross wan 

 esteemed so dishonourable that only slaves ail 



