curse A 



CRUSTACEA 



595 



first chronicli-rs,' he says, 'and consequently to the 

 lir-t cniMuh-rs, of whom they are but the expn- 

 sion, MoliiunmtMlans are objects onlv of hatred : it 

 hlrnt tliiit those \\lni spnik Of them do not 

 know tin-in. The historians of the later crusade.* 

 speak |nii- differently : it in clear that they l'x>k 

 upon tin-in no longer as raoncten j that they have 

 to a I-ITI .-tin extent entenul into their ideas ; that 

 they have lived with tin-in; and that relations, 

 and even a sort of sympathy, have been established 

 lietwoen them.' Thus the minds of both, but par- 

 ticularly of the crusaders, were partly delivered 

 from those prejudices which are the offspring of 

 ignorance. ' A step was taken towards the enfran- 

 chisement of the human mind.' Secondly, the 

 crn-:iders were brought into contact with two 

 civilisations, richer and more advanced than their 

 own the (I reek and the Saracenic; and it is 

 beyond all question that they were mightily struck 

 with the wealth and comparative refinement of 

 the East. Thirdly, the close relationship between 

 the chief laymen of the West and the church, 

 occasioned by the crusades, enabled the former ' to 

 inspect more narrowly the policy and motives of 

 the papal court.' The result was very disastrous 

 to that spirit of veneration and belief on which the 

 church lives, and in many cases an extraordinary 

 freedom of judgment and hardihood of opinion 

 were induced such as Europe had never before 

 dreamed of. The immediate results of the 

 crusades, however, went altogether to strengthen 

 the power of the church. Through their means 

 the popes found an easy method of ridding them- 

 selves of refractory monarchs ; and by the exor- 

 bitant taxes levied in the name of the cross they 

 practically rendered all the kingdoms of the West 

 their tributaries. Fourthly, great social changes 

 were brought about. A commerce between the 

 East and West sprang up, and towns the early 

 homes of liberty in Europe began to grow great 

 and powerful. The crusades, indeed, 'gave mari- 

 time commerce the strongest impulse it had ever 

 received.' 



See Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the 

 Roman Empire ; Milman's Latin Christianity ; Hal- 

 lam's History of the Middle Ages ; Mill's History of the 

 Crusades; Cox' "a History of 'the Crusades ; Heeren's Essay 

 on the Influence of the Crusades ; the great Recueil de 

 Historiens des Croimdes, issued by the Academic des In- 

 scriptions ; and Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades 

 ('Nations Series,' 1894); and the articles BALDWIN, 

 GODKKKY, JERUSALEM, RICHARD I., SALAUIN, WILLIAM 

 OK TYKK, &c. 



Cmsca, ACCADEMIA DELLA. See ACADEMY, 

 BELLA CKU.SCAN SCHOOL. 



Crusen.stolpe, MAGNUS JAKOB, Swedish 

 political writer, was born at Jonkoping, llth 

 March 1795. He wrote novels, elaborate historical 

 works, pamphlets, and contributed to the news- 

 papers. His Stullningar och Forhollenden, carried 

 on from 1838 till 1865, applied vigorous and unspar- 

 ing criticism to the questions and persons of the 

 day. His bitter opposition to government cost him 

 three years' imprisonment ( 1838-41 ). He died 18th 

 January 1865. 



4'riistarra. a large and important class of 

 Arthropod animals, including crabs, lobsters, 

 shrimps, sand-hoppers, wood-lice, water-fleas, bar- 

 nacles, acorn-shells, &c. The class contains such 

 variety of structure that general characters aro 

 hard to find. They an- almost all aquatic, but a 

 few (e.g. wood-lice and land-crabs) are terre.Htriai. 

 The majority are marine, but g^reat numbers in- 

 habit fresh water. The form of the body is very 

 variable, as may be seen by contrasting crab and 

 barnacle. A head with five pairs of appendages, a 

 limb-bearing thorax more or less united to the 

 former, and a segmented abdomen with or without 



are very generally dixtingu wimble. The 

 segmentation is never developed in the Ofttracod 

 water-fleas, and is often lost in degenerate forms, 

 lly the development of shields (A pun), bivalve 

 shells (water-fleas), and mantles (Cirripede), the 

 real form is often olmcured. AM to appendage*, the 

 head usually bears two pairs of antenna*, a pair of 

 mandibles, and two pain of maxilla;; the thorax i 

 always limb-bearing except in utter degeneracy; 

 and the alxlomen of the majority also carries 

 appendages. The typical form of limb, on which 

 so many changes are rung, consists of a basal piece 

 and two more or less jointed forks. The cuticle 

 varies greatly in degree of firmness, but is always 

 chitinous (see CHITIN) and often much calcified. 

 Clauds open on various parts of the surface, and 

 may l>e of use for preliminary digestion, for egg- 

 attachment, for mooring the animal, &c. The 

 colouring of the lnxly is often very brilliant and 

 beautiful ( see PIGMENTS ). It is sometimes like that 

 of the surroundings, and is occasionally associated 

 with sexuality. The power of colour-change is also 

 not uncommon. Sapphirina in said to rival the 

 humming-bird in its splendour. While the nervous 

 si/stem in general retains the Arthropod charac- 

 teristics, the ventral ganglia are often concentrated 

 (as in crabs). The majority possess compound 

 eyes, which in one large division are stalked. 

 Eyes are absent in some subterranean forms, and 

 are lost during the development of Cirripedia (q.v.) 

 and many parasites. In the Euphausidse there are 

 very numerous eye-like structures or luminous 

 organs over the body. Smelling hairs usually occur 

 on the first antenna 1 , and auditory hairs have been 

 frequently observed, usually more or less inclosed 

 in sacs. The alimentary system, which consists of 

 fore, mid, and hind gut, is usually simple, except as 

 regards the hard masticating parts often developed 

 on the cuticle of the anterior portion. In some para- 

 sitic forms the entire system degenerates. The 

 body-cavity is usually a good deal filled up by the 

 muscles and viscera; it contains the blood fluid, 

 which is occasionally faintly coloured with ha?mo- 

 globin, tetronerythrin, and other pigments, and 

 includes amoeboid elements. A heart is usually 

 present in the thoracic region, and is often in- 

 closed in a special part or the body -cavity the 

 pericardium. In higher forms the blood passes 

 by distinct arteries to the bodies, is gathered up in 

 venous spaces and sinuses, is purified in the gills, 

 and returns to the pericardia! sac and heart. 

 The respiratory si/stem is typically represented 

 by distinct gills variously attached ; in many cases 

 water flows in and out at the anus, and probably 

 effects an anal respiration ; in many lower forms 

 the blood is simply purified by being exposed under 

 the skin. The excretory system is never very 

 marked. The green glands of higher forms, the 

 shell-glands of Phyllopods and Copepods, and 

 certain other structures, are excretory. The repro- 

 ductive system presents many variations. The 

 sexes are usually separate, but most Cirripedes are 

 hermaphrodite. 'In the Cymothoidu 4 (Isopoda) 

 the sexual organ of the young animal is male of 

 the old, female in function.' The glands are 

 usually thoracic, and the ducts double. Some of 

 the appendages are often modified for copulation or 

 egg-retaining. The spermatozoa are peculiar in 

 being usually non-motile. The eggs are in most 

 cases carried about by the female, but are occa- 

 sionally laid on water- plan ts, &c., or in the water. 

 According to Bates. Podocerna capillatus builds a 

 neat of interlaced seaweed. Parthenogenesis (q.v.) 

 has been observed in some of the lower forms. 

 Complemental ' males occur among the hermaph- 

 rodite Barnacles and Acorn-shells (q.v.). 



Life-history, The development of Crustaceans 

 is usually indirect that is to say, the newly- 



