CRYPTOGRAPHY 



CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 



In British history, cryptography has at no time 

 been in greater requisition tliun during tin- Civil 

 \\.-ir. ('limit's L't Celebrated letter to tlie Earl of 

 ( .lamorgan (afterwards Miir<|iiis of Worcester), in 

 which he made-urn.- compromising oonc6Mk>MtotlM 

 Catln.lics of Ireland, was composed in an alphabet 

 (.sometimes Mipposed t<> In- ( 'liarlcs's own, but more 

 probably Worcester's invention) of twenty four 

 short stroke-, variously situated upon a line (see 

 <>>.\M). Other letters by the same monarch are 

 to appearance a mere series of numbers of two or 

 three figures iliviiletl by semicolons. In such cases 

 it was neee-^ary that the two parties engaging in 

 the correspondence should liave previously con- 

 certed what words each number was to represent. 



In the reign of William III. the Jacobites in- 

 vented many curious ciphers to enable them to 

 communicate with their exiled king. All the 

 .Jacobite clubs had distinct methods of their own 

 their great aim being to write in such a manner 

 that the very ciphers themselves should pass 

 through their enemies' hands without suspicion. 

 This they accomplished by means of sympathetic 

 inks. A favourite Jacobite cipher was the use of 

 parables, conveying, by means of ordinary lan- 

 guage, a double meaning, which only the person 

 acquainted with the writer's views would think of. 

 The use of cryptography for purposes of state in 

 England ended, it may be said, with the Peace of 

 1815. During the Peninsular war the government 

 attached a cryptographer to the office of the Minister 

 for Foreign Affairs to read and write the ciphers 

 received and despatched. It is said that on more 

 than one occasion the minister was unable to com- 

 prehend his own cipher. 



The earliest elaborate treatise on writing in 

 cipher is the Sterjanographia (Frankf. 1606) or the 

 abbot John Trithemius, a MS. copy of which was 

 bought for a thousand crowns at Antwerp by Dr Dee 

 in 1563. Lord Bacon, who esteemed cryptography 

 one of the most useful arts of his time, framed 

 what he believed a not easily penetrable cipher 

 in which he employed only a and b, arranging each 

 of these letters in groups of five, in such collocations 

 as to represent all the twenty-four letters. Thus 

 aabab, ababa, babba conveyed the word fly. In 

 his De Anqmentishe styled this an omniaper omnia 

 cipher, believing that in this case preconcertment 

 would be necessary; but in reality any clever 

 modern decipherer could have read any letter com- 

 posed in such a manner if it were of any length. 



Mr Donnelly, in his work The Greitt Cryptogram, 

 endeavours to prove that Bacon inserted a cipher 

 in the Shakespearian plays -which he claims is 

 the work of the great philosopher but the cipher 

 is of so elaborate a kind that nobody but Mr 

 Donnelly has been able to follow its intricacies. 

 The unfortunate Earl of Argyll used a mode of 

 secret writing which consisted in setting down the 

 words at certain intervals, which he afterwards 

 filled up with other words, making of the whole 

 something intelligible, but of no use to any one 

 else reading the message. The Marquis of Wor- 

 cester invented a cipher composed of dots and lines 

 variously ordered within a geometrical figure ; while 

 Dr Blair made one of three dots, placed over, under, 

 or on the line, by which he could reprenent no 

 fewer than eighty-one letters, figures. or words. 

 The Doctor, in his able article in Ree^s Cyclopn >/,.>, 

 declares this cipher to be as nearly as possible 

 undecipherable by strangers ; but two years after- 

 wards, Mr Gage, of Norwich, published a pamphlet 

 on purpose to solve Dr Blair's riddle. As he 

 devoted fourteen closely printed octavo pages to 

 the explanation, any description of the cipher is 

 beyond the limits of this article. Mr ThicKnesse, 

 a wdl-known expert of the 18th century, also 

 devised a plan of conveying information in the 



of music, the note*, rent*, expretwion- 

 marks, &c., standing for letters. 



All the method*, nowever, of cryptography may 

 thus be summarised : (1) By invisible ink; (2) 

 by superfluous words; (3) by misplaced words ; 

 (4) by vertical and diagonal reading ; (5) by arti- 

 ficial word -grouping ; (6) by stencil -plates cut out 

 so as to show certain words beneath ; ( 7 ) by lining 

 two letters (Lord Bacon's cipher); (8) by trans- 

 posing the letters ; (9) by sulwtitution of letters ; 

 (10) by counterpart tabulations; (11) by mixed 

 symbols; (12) by a printed key and code-look, 

 used chiefly in telegrams; (13) by the employment 

 of numerals. 



The present century has seen the decline of 

 cryptography for all practical purposes, and the art 

 is now only regarded as a curious study, closely 

 connected with the history of all nations. 



Cryptomeria. or JAPANESE CEDAR. This 

 lofty and beautiful hardy coniferous tree (C. 

 japonica) is widely distributed in mountain dis- 

 tricts of Japan and China, as well as cultivated 

 in many varieties. It was introduced by Robert 

 Fortune in 1842, and has since passed into cultiva- 

 tion. Although originally confused with the 

 cypresses, it is nearly allied to Sequoia and Taxo- 

 dium. See CONIFERS. 



Cryptoprocta, a fierce carnivorous animal of 

 Madagascar, forming a genus and species by itself. 

 Semi-plantigrade, and with beautiful fur, it re- 

 sembles a large polecat, three feet long, and 

 attacks the largest animals with great ferocity. 



Crystalline Rocks, a name given to all rocks 

 having a crystalline structure. The crystalline 

 texture may either be original or superinduced. 

 Thus some crystalline rocks, such as certain cal- 

 careous masses, owe their origin to chemical pre- 

 cipitation from water, while others again, such as 

 lavas, have consolidated from a state of igneous 

 fusion. There is another large class of crystalline 

 rocks, the crystalline granules of which present 

 a remarkable foliated character that is, they are 

 arranged in more or less parallel layers (see 

 SCHISTS ). This peculiar schistose structure appears 

 to have been superinduced the original rocks 

 having been either fragmental or crystalline or 

 both and the result of great heat and pressure. 

 Such highly altered rocks occur in the neighbour- 

 hood of masses of granite, and cover wide regions, 

 where there is abundant evidence to show that the 

 strata have been subjected to enormous compres- 

 sion, crushing, and crumpling having been folded 

 and fractured and pushed violently over each other 

 for distances of sometimes 15 miles and more. It 

 is therefore believed that pressure and the heat 

 engendered by great earth-movements, and the in- 

 trusion of plutonic igneous matter, are among the 

 most potent agencies in the production of schistose 

 structure. 



Crystallites, minute non-polarising bodies (the 

 result of incipient crystallisation) occurring in the 

 vitreous portions of igneous rocks. See IGNEOUS 

 ROCKS. 



Crystallography (from the Greek krustallos, 

 'ice,' an idea among the ancients being that 

 rock-crystal, which may be taken as a type of 

 crystalline minerals, resulted from the subjection 

 of water to intense cold ). Minerals, salts, and in- 

 organic Inxlies generally (examples, rock-crystal, 

 fluor-spar, alum, and sugar) exist in the crystalline 

 state ; and when we examine all crystals, whether 

 occurring naturally or obtained artificially, certain 

 laws have been discovered, and phenomena observed, 

 and these laws and phenomena constitute the 

 science of crystallography. The following are the 

 more important laws and principles of the science : 



( 1 ) Law of Constancy of Angles. Crystals of tl>.o 



