

I) KI-'O I !<!: MKN T 



DKQAI 



733 



See the Lives by George Chalmers (1786), Walter 

 WiUon (IttttM, Chad wick (18.VJ), Loe (IWiy), ami Wright 

 (1894); tho Bttulirn liy Scott, Ijirnb, Huzlitt, Foratcr, 

 1..-- lie Stephen, and I'roffMor Mmto. The bent approxi- 

 mations t<> roiii|il.a.- editions of Defoe'o work* have been 

 thoiie of Scott and Hazlitt. 



Deforcement* in Knglish law, include- abate- 

 incut, intrusion, disseisin, or any other wrong where- 

 by lie that has tho right to a freehold is kept 

 out of possession. ' Deforeiant* was formerly the 

 tfclinic.il nuiiii' of tin- defendant in tho fictitious 

 faroOMding called a Fine. In Scotland, the trim 

 deforcement is most commonly used to denote 

 forcible obstruction of the otticers of the law : this 

 is one of the cases in which the Court of Session 

 has a criminal jurisdiction. 



Deformities are variations in the form of the 

 body as a whole, or in one or more of its parts, con- 

 stituting a departure from the normal conditions of 

 structure, and usually implying a corresponding 

 divergence from natural and healthy functions. 

 They mav l>e divided into three groups, with refer- 

 ence to their origin the hereditary, the congenital, 

 and the acqvtrea. The first group is characterised 

 by a marked tendency to recurrence in the line of 

 direct descent from generation to generation, as in 

 those cases where the presence of extra fingers or 

 toes has become characteristic of many members of 

 one family ( for a full record of an interesting case 

 in point, see Carpenter's Human Physiology). 

 Such hereditary tendencies to modification of form 

 along certain lines of descent constitute local 

 examples of the ' Natural Law of Variation,' which 

 plays an important part in the Darwinian theory 

 of the origin of species. According to this theory, 

 modifications which are of value in the exigencies 

 of the struggle for existence will become per- 

 petuated, and supersede earlier and less favourable 

 conditions of conformation ; while modifications 

 that do not possess such value, after repetition 

 through one or two generations, disappear again, 

 and these, since they are useless as well as aberrant 

 conditions, are properly included within the group 

 of hereditary deformities. In the second group, 

 that of congenital deformities, occur those much 

 more frequent abnormalities that result from dis 

 turbing influences acting on the otherwise normal 

 embryo previous to its birth. These anomalies 

 occur chiefly as deformities by defective develop- 

 ment, and deformities by perverted development. 

 Arrested development may be general, affecting 

 the whole Ixxly, when a dwarf is produced ; or 

 local, affecting individual organs or parts, pro- 

 ducing a great variety of obvious local deformities, 

 in disproportion or malformation of special regions 

 of the body. If the local arrest of development 

 is absolute, the defect caused by it is so great as to 

 constitute a Monstrosity (q.v. ), where whole organs 

 may be absent, as the brain (anencephatia), the 

 skull (acrania), the lower jaw (agnathia), all the 

 limbs (ainelu.?), or one or more of them (mono- 

 brachius, man opus). Perverted development is 

 seen in cases where parts normally separate become 

 fused together, as in the 'siren-monster,' in which 

 botli lower limbs are welded into one tapering 

 extremity. The causes producing these congenital 

 monstrosities and the lesser and more common 

 deformities of the same class are very varied and 

 often very obscure. Modern writers have, how- 

 ever, made them a subject of special study under 

 the name Teratology (tera*, 'monster, logos, 

 'science'), and have devised experimental con 

 ditions which illustrate the subject. Thus, in the 

 case of the embryo chick, Panum found that 

 deformities could be produced by varying the tem- 

 perature of the hatching apparatus, and varnishing 

 the egg shells ; while Dareste discovered that a like 

 result occurs if the eggs be placed vertically instead 



of lying on their -id<-- ; and (Jerlaeh. by \arni-hing 

 the whole surface of the egg with tin- exception of 

 a Y-shaped streak on one hide, succeeded in pro- 

 ducing a double Untied chicken. 



In the human subject the cause tf the deformity 

 may depend on purely mechanical condition*, an 

 when tne navel string of the embryo In-come* 

 twi-tcd round a limb and cau-c- it, gradual 

 -I >.uation and destruction (no-called ' intra uN-rme 

 amputation'). In many cases, however, the CHUM? 

 i> much more recondite, and appear-, to depend 

 upon a variety of circumstances affecting the 

 maternal organisation. In an increasing propor- 

 tion of cases which are carefully investigated, it 

 appears that maternal impressions, the result of 

 shock or unpleasant experiences- , may have a con- 

 siderable influence in producing deformities in the 

 offspring. This haw for long leeJi a popular theory, 

 and it is one that recent scientific observation is 

 tending to confirm, but only in a comparatively 

 limited proportion of cases ; and it must IK? admit ted 

 that the majority of cases cannot be explained on 

 any theory of causation as yet suggested. 



The chief varieties of malformation, coming 

 under the heading of congenital deformities, are 

 the following : ( 1 ) As regards the numlier of parts. 

 In the Siren, two lower extremities are fused 

 into one mass, but dissection shows that all the 

 constituent bones of the limbs may be present, 

 though much distorted, in the combined structure. 

 In the Cyclops, the eyes are similarly fused into one 

 irregular structure occupying the centre of the 

 face. (2) As regards the size : of parts. This may 

 involve the whole body, as in dwarfs, of whom 

 there have been some remarkable peripatetic speci- 

 mens : the Corsican fairy was only 2 feet 7$ inches 

 high ; Mademoiselle Crachami, the smallest lady 

 who ever lived, died at ten years of age, only 20 

 inches in height. This kind of deformity is* not 

 necessarily hereditary ; the father of BorowttttkL 

 who was only 39 inches when thirty years old, had 

 six children alternately short and "tall ; and dwarf 

 women have brought forth infants as long, when 

 extended, as their mothers. One limb only may 

 be diminutive. Of course, deformities the opposite 

 of these exist, such as giants, or instances of pre- 

 mature or excessive local growth. O' Byrne, the 

 Irish giant, measured 8 feet 4 inches when he died 

 at the age of twenty-two. Such individuals are 

 generally subject to premature decay. One finger 

 or one toe often grows to such abnormal dimen- 

 sions as to necessitate its removal ( local hyper- 

 trophy). (3) As regards the shape And continuity 

 of parts. Distortion may occur from partial para- 

 lysis or irregular muscular action at an early stage 

 of development, giving rise to Club-foot (q.v.), 

 club hand, &c. ; or natural fissures or apertures 

 which should close in the course of development 

 may remain open, as in harelip, cleft palate, and 

 apina bijida. 



Acquired deformities arise in various ways as 

 the result of injury or disease at any icriod after 

 birth. Among injuries', burns, scalds, fractures, 

 and dislocations are the most fertile causes of 

 permanent deformity : and among di>ea>cs, rickets, 

 and other diseases of bone, lepn>-\, and rheumatic 

 affections are common cau>e>. Another group of 

 these affections, known as ' trade ' deformities, are 

 directly traceable to the special work done by the 

 person suffering from them. 



Defregger* FKANZ, painter, waa born at 

 Stronach. near Lien/, 30lh April LV1.Y He btudied 

 under I'iloty at Munich, and himself became a 

 professor in the Munich Academy. 



Degas, HlLAIRE-GERMAlX EDGARD, one of the 

 greatest impressionist painters, born at Paris, 19th 

 July 1834. See IMPRESSIONISM. 



