18 



FROZEN STRAIT 



FRUIT 



Andrews University in 1869, and received the 

 degree of LL. D. For a short time he was editor 

 of Fraser's Magazine. His next history, The 

 English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century 

 (3 vols. 1871-74), showed the same merits and 

 the same defects as the greater work, and the 

 same may be said of his Ccesar: a Sketch (1879), 

 a subject for the treatment of which he possessed 

 but one qualification consummate style. In 1874, 

 and again in 1875, Froude visited the South African 

 colonies on a mission from the home govern- 

 ment, and published his impressions in Two Lec- 

 tures on South Africa ( 1880). As Carlyle's literary 

 executor, Froude edited Ins Reminiscences (1881), 

 Mrs Carlyle's Letters (3 vols. 1882), and Carlyle's 

 own Life (4 vols. 1882-84) ; and by giving to the 

 world the copious personal criticism and family 

 details contained in these works, he suggested 

 grave doubts as to his editorial discretion. Later 

 works are Oceana (1886), a delightful account of 

 an Australasian voyage ; The English in the West 

 Indies (1888 assailed by West Indians as quite 

 misleading) ; The Two Chiefs of Dunboy (1889), an 

 Irish historical romance ; T he Divorce of Catherine 

 of Aragon (1891) ; and The Spanish Story of the 

 Armada, and other Essays (1892). Minor works 

 were Calvinism (1871), Bunyan (1880), Luther 

 (1883), and Beaconsfield (1891). In 1892 he was 

 appointed Professor of Modern History at Oxford, 

 in succession to Freeman, and he died atSalcombe 

 in Devonshire, 20th October 1894. The Life and 

 Letters of Erasmus (1894) and Lectures on the 

 Council of Trent (1896), both delivered as lectures 

 at Oxford, exhibit his unique merits and hia char- 

 acteristic defects a power and skill of statement 

 that rank him with the very greatest masters of 

 English prose, a partisan spirit on great issues, 

 and a carelessness about accuracy in details and 

 not unimportant facts. See Skelton's Table-talk 

 of Shirley (1895). His elder brother, RICHARD 

 HURRELL FROUDE, a leader in the Oxford Tracta- 

 rian movement, was born at Dartington, in Devon- 

 shire, 25th March 1803. After graduating atOxford 

 in 1824 he became Fellow and tutor of Oriel College. 

 Tracts 9 and 63 were from his pen. He died on 

 28th February 1836. His Remains were published 

 three years after his death by Keble arid Newman. 

 Another brother, WILLIAM FROUDE, born in 

 1810 and educated at Westminster and Oriel 

 College, Oxford, was trained to be a civil engineer, 

 and in 1838 became assistant to Brunei. Retiring 

 from professional work in 1846, he devoted him- 

 self, down to his death at the Cape, 4th May 1879, 

 to investigating the laws of naval construction. 



Frozen Strait* an Arctic passage, 15 miles 

 wide, separating Southampton Island from Melville 

 Peninsula. 



Fructidor ('fruit-month') was the name in 

 the French republican calendar for the period 18th 

 August-16th September (see CALENDAR). On the 

 18th Fructidor of the year 5 (4th September 1797) 

 there was- a coup d'etat by the Directory. 



Fructification, the reproductive system or the 

 ' fruit ' of cryptogams. See FUNGI, SEAWEEDS. 



Fructose (Laevulose ). See SUGAR. 



Frugoni, CARLO INNOCENZO, an Italian poet, 

 was born at Genoa in 1 692, and taught rhetoric at 

 Brescia, Genoa, and Bologna, and died in 1768. 

 He belonged to the ' Arcadian ' group, and wrote 

 odes, epistles, and satires, and was famous with 

 his contemporaries for versatility and elegance, but 

 is now all but forgotten. 



Fruit. In popular language, the term fruit is 

 very vaguely employed. When extended beyond 

 the common limitation of usefulness to man or 

 beast, it tends to be applied to any plant-structure, 



phanerogamic or cryptogamic, which contains the 

 germ of the new individual to all the organs of 

 fructification in short. But, as common observa- 

 tion deepens into botany, we find ourselves gradu- 

 ally led to the more precise restriction of the term 

 fruit to the ovary of angiosperms (monocotyledons 

 or dicotyledons) after fertilisation (see FLOWER, 

 OVARY). 



The numerous and interesting adaptations of 

 different fruits to the preservation and distribution 

 of the seed will be more conveniently outlined 

 under SEED, while the periodic rhythm between 

 vegetative and reproductive growth to which the 

 question of fruit attracts our attention must be 

 discussed under the more general head of RE- 

 PRODUCTION. The special structure and physiology 

 of fruits here remain to be considered. 



Since the dawn of modern botany, the multi- 

 farious forms of fruit have led to many attempts at 

 their classification. Yet the student is more apt to 

 be overwhelmed by the resulting disorderly and 

 redundant nomenclature of the subject than im- 

 pressed by its systematic clearness. If, however, 

 we keep fast hold of the elementary conceptions 

 of vegetable physiology, morphology, and evolu- 

 tion, the difficulty of enumerating .and classifying 

 the various forms of fruit becomes greatly dimin- 

 ished. We must of course assume a knowledge of 

 the general morphology of the Flower (q.v. ). 



Starting then with those simplest flowers in 

 which all the carpels are separate, we find the 

 stigma and style usually withering back as no 

 longer of service, and the ovary enlarging, as the 

 fertilised ovules grow up into seeds. But in many 

 such simple flowers more ovules are produced than 

 are fertilised, and generally also more fertilised 

 than can be developed up to maturity ; hence the 

 reduction of the ovules is exceedingly common. 

 The alternative of reducing the number of carpels 

 also commonly appears : hence in the same order of 

 Ranuncnlacese we nave on the one hand the anemone 

 with its multitude of small ovaries which only 

 mature a single ovule, and on the other the lark- 

 spur or monkshood with few carpels, but these 

 many-seeded. This process of reduction of the 

 number of carpels or ovules, or of both, lias not 

 only taken place in the process of past evolution of 

 the great majority of plants, but is still frequently 

 to be observed in the development of the individual, 

 as is well seen by comparing the characteristically 

 one-celled and one-seeded acorn with a section of 

 the three-celled and six-ovuled ovary from which it 

 actually arose in spring, or, more simply, by recall- 

 ing to memory the abortive ovules and the corre- 

 sponding abortion of one or two of the original 

 three divisions of the ovary in the fruit of the 

 horse-chestnut. 



A second common-sense ' principle of fruit- 

 making,' as we may call it, is reached through 

 keeping clearly in mind the nature and origin of 

 the ovary ; for, however the upgrowth of the axis 

 may in perigynous or epigynous flowers conceal this 

 (see FLOWER), we know the ovary primarily to have 

 arisen from one or more carpellary leaves, of which 

 the individual development has been so greatly 

 checked ( doubtless through the precocious develop- 

 ment of their sporangia i.e. ovules), that so far 

 from becoming expanded like all other appendages, 

 they remain closed upon the ovules, and frequently 

 even coalesce with each other from the base upwards, 

 so forming a many-celled ovary, often even with 

 united styles or even stigmas. Yet the tendency 

 to their individual expansion is not lost ; in many 

 monstrosities, and normally a few types, such as 

 the common mignonette, the carpellary leaves early 

 begin to expand, so opening the ovary and exposing 

 the seeds long before ripeness. Far more fre- 

 quently, however, this final development of the 



