FCKL 



FIKKO 



25 



candle) coal.' The last- mentioned variety, more- 

 in-T, includes tin) Edinburgh 'parrot coal' (so 

 named I'lnni its crackling) un<l tin- 'horn coal' of 

 South \Vali'>, which is clumicteriBed by a smell 

 like that of hurnt horn. At tin- head of this class 

 of fucN is the aiithraciti' coal, holding over 90 

 per cent of earhon, and therefore of special value 

 for -nine purposes in metallurgy and otherwise. 

 Anthracite i-, very compact, somewhat hrittle, 

 and does not stain the lingers like ordinary coal. 



For comparing as fuels some leading types of 

 coals the following table which is an abstract 

 from various returns will be of use, presenting the 

 percentage of carbon, of hydrogen, and the ash left 

 after combustion : 



Fuel. Carl-. H. Hydrogen. Ash. 



\\Vlsh ciwl 91-3 3'3 1-6 



Mayeune 907 8-9 '9 



IVnnsylvania 89-2 2'4 47 



Newcastle 80*8 6'2 1'4 



Glasgow 83-0 3'3 6'1 



Lancashire y_'-6 57 2'6 



Kilt-shire 81"2 3*8 4'6 



Blanzy 76-4 6'2 2'3 



Ayrshire 73'4 2"9 5"0 



Lignites (E. France) 6H1 6'2 3-0 



Asphaltmn (Mexico) 78'1 9'3 2"8 



Peats(France) ' 57'2 6'9 6-0 



Wood (average) 45-49*6 5'8 2*0 



In primitive times the scarcity of wood in some 

 parts of Egypt and India suggested the use as fuel 

 of sun-dried cakes of the dung of camels and oxen. 

 A similar practice exists to-day in the trackless 

 steppes of Central Asia; and so, too, in various 

 countries of Europe much refuse, especially of 

 a vegetable nature, is utilised which in coal or 

 wood producing districts is rejected as absolutely 

 worthless. In eastern France, for example, and 

 Germany all the spent bark .from tanneries 

 is formed into cakes for fuel, and estimated 

 as worth about three-fourths the same weight of 

 wood. Where coal is not found or cannot profit- 

 ably be conveyed, the preservation of forests is 

 of manifest importance; and in certain parts of 

 Europe, for example, trees are systematically 

 planted in hedgerows and otherwise to provide 

 fuel. For the same reason pollarding is resorted to, 

 the branches being regularly cut, and the trunk 

 left to grow fresh fuel. The scientific world, with 

 as good a reason as the primitive races, have recently 

 found means to largely supplement the natural 

 supply of vegetable and mineral fuels by fluid or 

 gaseous substances. Thus, in smelting iron, for 

 example, the carbonic oxide, which formerly was 

 carried oh" in the smoke from the blast-furnace, is 

 now sometimes collected and conveyed in pipes to 

 be utilised as fuel under steam-boilers. Natural 

 gas is also used to good purpose, notably in the 

 Lake Erie district of the United States, where in 

 many instances it is transferred for miles for 

 heating furnaces. In the same district petroleum 

 is a recognised liquid fuel, as well as naphtha. 

 Another liquid fuel is creasote-oil, derived from 

 coal tar, which is reported to possess, weight for 

 weight, at least twice the power of coal for raising 

 steam. The United States chemists and metallur- 

 gists are agreed that not only is a ' higher, steadier, 

 and more even heat' produced by liquid fuel, but 

 that, for heating iron more especially, a smaller 

 quantity and shorter time suffice to obtain the same 

 results. Baku petroleum is used as fuel for locomo- 

 tives and steamers in South-east Russia. See GAS. 



1 'nder this head we subjoin some figures from a 

 report nt a Royal Commission drawn up in 1S71 by 

 Professor Hankine. The first column ( A ) shows the 

 quantity of heat units generated by the fuel ; the 

 second (B) the pounds of water heated from 60 

 to 212, and then, of course, converted into steam ; 

 and the third column (C) gives the comparative 

 temperature of the fire or flame : 



Fuel. A. B. C. 



Petroleum 20,000 16 4644 



I'untffln-oll ao.000 16 4040 



Oil from ami -2U.OUO 16 4044 



Creuoto UMKM l:; 4496 



fv- , ( from 18,800 8-96 2600 



\ to 14.833 9-67 2&UO 



The three jwinta noted in testing a fuel chemi- 

 cal ly are the intensity of the heat, the quantity of 

 heat developed in combustion, and the luminosity. 

 The last of these, however, affords but an imperfect 

 measure of the temperature, tacause it is mainly 

 due to the presence of solid particles. Instead of 

 the second some writers use the term ' calorific 

 power.' In ordinary coal combustion there are two 

 steps of the process: (1) the carlxjii is separated 

 from the hydrogen in light particles, which, unless 

 burned, appear as soot or smoke ; (2) the hydrogen 

 becoming ignited heats up the carlion particles, 

 which therefore appear as flame. For the complete 

 combustion, therefore, of a typical hydrocarbon we 

 require not only air in sufficient quantity, but also 

 intensity of heat above the fuel. In a good furnace 

 the supply of coal should by mechanical contrivance 

 be rendered as regular and uniform as that of air ; 

 and the body of the furnace should be so protected 

 from the boiler surface and other cooling agents as 

 to steadily maintain a temperature sufficient for 

 thorough ignition of the flame. 



What are called ' patent fuels ' arise mainly from 

 the desire to utilise the refuse arising from the pro- 

 duction or wasteful use of coal. Such artificial fuel, 

 however, is by no means an entirely modern device, 

 since the Chinese have for ages been accustomed 

 to mix coal-dust with clay and bitumen, so much 

 so as to constitute a large branch of industry. The 

 most common form of ' patent fuel ' is a mixture of 

 the small coal which accumulates at the pit mouths 

 with sand, marl, or clay, or of some bituminous or 

 resinous substance witn sawdust. A second kind 

 has dried and compressed peat as its basis, and is 

 sold in the form of a dense brown solid. Another 

 is an attempt to utilise small coke and the refuse 

 'breeze,' which is well known in charcoal burning. 

 The ' charbon de Paris ' is a combination of the dust 

 of anthracite charcoal and similar refuse with coal- 

 tar, so as to form a paste and be moulded into small 

 cylinders of about 4 inches in length. Briquettes 

 (q.v.) are compounds of waste coal-dust and 

 pitch. 



See Report of Royal Commission on the Coal of the 

 United Kingdom (1871) ; Report on the Coals suited to 

 the Steam Navy (1848) ; Rumford's Works, vols. ii., iii ; 

 Williams, Fuel : its Combustion a nd Economy ( 3d ed. 1886 ) ; 

 Phillips, Fuels: their Analysis and Valuation (1890). 



Fuente Alamo, a town of Spain, 20 miles S. 

 of Murcia. Pop. 7900. 



Flieilte Ovcjtma. a small walled town of 

 Spain, 45 miles NvV. of Cordova. Pop. 7937. 



Fuenterrabia. See FONTARABIA. 



FlientCS de Oiioro, a small village of Sala- 

 manca. Spain, on the Portuguese frontier, 15 miles 

 WSW. or Ciudad Hodrigo, was the scene of an im- 

 portant battle of the Peninsular war on the .~>th 

 May 1811, when Wellington defeated Massena. 

 The English lost 2000, the French 5000. 



Flier O (Span. ; Portuguese, foral, foraes ; Gali- 

 cian, foro ; Gascoun, fors ; Lat. forum ), a term 

 used in different senses. ( 1 ) The title of a law code. 

 Fuero Juzgo, the so-called legislation of the Gothic 

 kings of Spain ; Fuero Real, &c. (2) The municipal 

 charters of privileges granted by kings, lords, and 

 monastic iHxlies to inhabitants of towns Leon 

 (1020), Najera( 1035), Sahagun (1085), &c., espe- 

 cially to towns deserted or recaptured from the 

 Moors, or those used for frontier defence e.g. 

 Oloron, in Beam ( 1080 ). Sometimes these charters 

 were offered especially to foreigners, Fueros Franco*, 



