tSNKLSENAU 



268 



and Much menus of protection against them UM are 

 in hotter count rie-, axain-t their allies the 



i nitons (ij.v. ). Gnats occasionally swarm to- 

 gether ill such numbers that lhe\ pre-i-ut the 

 appearance of dense clouds of smoke; and it in 

 recorded that, in tin- year 17HH, an alarm of I'm; 

 was raised in Salisbury becauae \ tin- vast columns 

 of /nuts swarming round the cathedral spin-. 



l.lK'ix'liail. At iM'sr \VII.IIKI.M AN n>N. (ii;\i 

 N i.i i n \i;ur \i>\, one of the Prussian generals of 



uar of liberal inn. \\a> l>orn at Schihlau, in 

 I'm ian Saxony, -JTtli Octolxjr 1760. In 1782 he 



'upanied the German auxiliaries of England t<i 

 America. On his return he joined (1786) the 

 I'ru-siaii army, and twenty \ears later fought 

 at Sanlft'ld and in the battle of Jena. He gave 

 omvincing proof of his military genius in the 

 defence of Colberg from Ajiril to July ISO"; and 

 tliis led to his appointment on the commission for 

 the reorganisation of the Prussian army, in which 

 rapacity he lent cordial support to the nlans of 

 Stein and Scharnhorst. In the war of liberation 

 he rendered distinguished service at the battle of 

 Leip/ig (1813). But his most meritorious work 

 \\.i- his -hare in the \\ 'aterloo campaign, in which 

 he was chief of Bliicher's staff, and principally 

 directed t he st rategy of the Prussian army. He had 

 been fifteen years on the retired list when, in 1831, 

 on the outbreak of the Polish rebellion, he was made 

 lield marshal and given command of the Prussian 

 army on the Polish frontier, but he died at Poscn on 

 Jith August that same year. See his Life by Pert/ 

 (.-> vols. 1S(54-80) and Delhi-tick (2 vols. 1882). 



Gneiss, a term introduced from the German for 

 a foliated crystalline-granular compound of quartz, 

 felspar, ami mica. The quart/ is white or gray, 

 and occurs in lenticular layers that vary from a 

 mere line up to bands one foot or more in thickness. 

 The felspar likewise forms folia, and is usually 

 orthoclase, but plagioclase is often associated with 

 it. Frequently the ciuartz and felspar are inti- 

 mately commingled. The mica ( usually Muscovite) 

 occurs in lamina- between the other minerals. In 

 ^mie \aiieiies of gneiss the felspar occurs in lentil- 

 shaped swellings, farming angen-gneissC eye-gneiss') 

 or /iiir/1/ii/ntir ijneiss. Varieties in composition are 

 linnilili'iulii- 1/ni'iss, in which hornblende replaces 

 mica: i>r<it<njinc //wm-.v, with talc instead of mica; 

 <n-it/>/itfr t/neiss, with graphite in place of mica. 

 iJnciss l>elongs to the great class of schistose 

 rocks, and in many cases can be shown to be the 

 product of the metamorphism of clastic rocks, such 

 as greywacke. In other cases it has been proved 

 that gneiss has resulted from the metamorphism 

 of granite the one rock passing gradually into the 

 other. The coarser-grained gneisses belong chiefly 

 to the Archiean System (q.v.), and concerning the 

 origin of these geologists are still divided in opinion. 

 The finer-Brained varieties are met with in many 

 regions which have been affected by local and 

 regional metamorphism. See METAMORPHOSIS. 



Gneist, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIE- 

 DRICH VON, jurist, was born in Berlin, 13th August 

 1816. He entered official life as assessor in the 

 Superior Court (Kammergericht) in 1841, and was 

 successively assistant- judge of the same court and of 

 the Supreme Tribunal, until in 1850 he resigned this 

 position in order to devote himself exclusively to 

 teaching; for since 1844 he had held the chair of 

 I'M imprudence iii Uerliu I 'niversity. From 1858 

 he sat in the Prussian lower house as a National 

 Liberal, and was also elected a member of the 

 imperial parliament. His writings deal chiefly with 

 < 'institutional law in England and Germany, and 

 with politico-historical subjects, as Die Eudtmg 

 der Getchwornengerichte in Dentschland (1849)'; 

 Add und Ritternelutft in E,jl<ind (1853); Dus 



mill \ ni'iUtunatreekl 

 (1867 'I-'* ; -'M ed. IsTii si;,' hi* maht.-ipicce ; );,/,/./ 



mill tii.it. 1,11,1, ,/, ,,i i-i,n\lit ill nun III ii Stunt 

 Kin/In nils (lMo'7;; !>,, .^tiiiH,-< limit niul il< i t ,t ,, 

 run l.onilon (1H57); I '////// //////, .//.*//.;, Hi , I, txweg 

 . . . iiin-li 1-iniH.vlii-n mill ill at v I, <n \irlniltniuen 

 (ISfi!)); Bttjfaeh Vi-rt" .1,,,-litr ( 1HK2 ; 



Eng. trans, 'by Anhwofth, 18S<>); Ix,* mr/littJie 

 rrlin,nt (1886; Eng. trans, by Shee, 1886), and 

 numerous workrt dealing with current question* of 

 practical politics in Germany. He wa* ennobled in 

 1888, and died 21st July 1895. 



Gnesen (Polish Gniezno), a Prussian town, 

 situated in a region of hills and lakes, 31 miles 

 ENE. of Posen by rail. It has a Catholic cathedral, 

 dating from 965, and till 1320 was the coronation - 

 place of the Polish kings. It came finally to 

 Prussia in 1814. Pop. 18,088. 



Gnetacere. See SEA GRAPK. 



Guides. See CNIIX..-.. 



Gnome (Gr. gnome), a pithy and sententious 

 saying, commonly in verse, embodying some moral 

 sentiment or precept. The gnome belongs to the 

 same generic class with the proverb ; but it differs 

 from a proverb in wanting that common and popu- 

 lar acceptance which stamps the proverb, as it 

 were, with public authority. The use of gnomes 

 prevailed among all the early nations, especially 

 the Orientals ; and the literatures, both sacred and 

 profane, of most countries abound with them. In 

 the Bible the book of Proverbs, part of Eccle- 

 siastes, still more the apocryphal book of Eccle- 

 siasticus, and other Ixwks of the Old Testament 

 contain many examples ; and in the New Testament 

 the familiar lessons of our Lord are frequently pre- 

 sented in this striking form. The Indian, the 

 Arabian, and the Persian literatures also are rich 

 in gnomes, as are those of the northern nations. 

 But the most interesting form which they have 

 taken is that in which we find them in Greek 

 literature, in which the writers who have culti- 

 vated this form of composition are known as a 

 distinct class the Gnomic Poets (qnoinikoi). The 

 Greek gnome is commonly couched in the elegiac 

 distich ; and the most celebrated gnomic poet was 

 Theognis of Megara, in the 6th century B.C. The 

 remains of gnomic writers have been repeatedly 

 edited under the title of Gnomici Poetce Grteci, from 

 the days of Melanchthon downwards. Standard 

 editions are those of Brunck (1784; new ed. 1817) 

 and Gaisford ( 1820 ; new ed. 1823). See PROVERRS. 



Gnome. See DEMONOLOGV. 



Gnomon. When a rectangle is divided into 

 four parts by cross lines parallel to its sides, the 

 sum of any three of the parts is called the gnomon. 

 For Gnomonic Projection, see PROJECTION. 

 < 'minion has also a meaning in dialling (see 

 DIAL); and a gnomon, or style erected at right 

 angles to the horizon, sometimes of great height, 

 was much used by ancient astronomers for finding 

 the altitudes and declinations of sun and stars. 



Gnosticism. In the New Testament the 

 rlidi-isiiin of ijnosis, or the 'knowledge' of the 

 mysteries of God, is distinguished from sophia, or 

 practical religious 'wisdom (cf. 1 Cor. xii. 8). This 

 Christian ijimsiti was at first the natural product 

 of theological reflection on the positive doctrines 

 contained in the Gospel. A Jewish theology, 

 based on the religious ideas of the Old Testament, 

 \\a- already in existence, and had received a 

 powerful impulse from the combination of Greek 

 philosophy with Hellenistic Judaism by Philo. 

 The chief function of the earlier giiosis had been to 

 discover the ideal value of the various religious 

 histories, myths, mysteries, and ordinances, and ti 

 get behind the letter of the written word. In coui>o 



