H01WKMA 



IIOIUIKS 



727 



Lastly, he entered the service : of Turkey ( 1807 ), arid 

 for his great services in checking the Greek blockadc- 

 runners to Crete in that year was raised to the rank 

 of i>a.sha und mode admiral of tlie Ottoman Meet. 

 On the outbreak of the Kusso-Turkbm war (1878) 

 he took command of the Turkish Black Sea fleet. 

 After each of these last pieces of active service his 

 name was struck off the British Admiralty list, but 

 on each occasion subsequently restored. He died on 

 19th June 1886 at Milan. He wrote Sketches from 

 My Life (edited by his widow, 1887), and a book 

 entitled Never Caught (1867), giving an account 

 of his exploits during the civil war in America. 



II oh hrina. MEINDERT, landscape-painter, born 

 in 1038, probably at Amsterdam. Few particulars 

 of his life are known. He is believed to have 

 studied art under Jacob Huysdael, whose name 

 appears as a witness to his marriage at Amsterdam, 

 2d October 1608, to Eeltije Vinck, who predeceased 

 him in 1704. He died in poverty, and was buried 

 in the Westerkerkhof, Amsterdam, 14th December 

 1709. His art usually deals with quiet subjects of 

 Dutch cottage and woodland scenery, and these 

 are treated with a skill which entitles the artist 

 to rank along with Ruysdael at the very head of 

 the landscape-painters of Holland. His works are 

 subdued in tone, and finished with extreme care, 

 yet with a singularly free and spirited touch, and 

 are excellent in composition and lighting. Their 

 figures were executed by Berchem, Adrian Vande- 

 velde, and Lingelbach. Smith has catalogued 142 

 of his works, which now command very large prices, 

 small landscapes from his hand having fetched 

 from 5000 to 10,000. Seven of his works are in 

 the National Gallery, London, and of these ' The 

 Avenue, Middelharnis, Holland,' formerly in the 

 Peel and Vander Pot collections, is an exquisite 

 example. See E. Michel, Hobbema et les Paysagistes 

 deson Temps (1890). 



Hobbes, THOMAS, was born at Malmesbury on 

 the 5th April 1588, and was the son of the vicar 

 of Charlton and Westport adjoining that town. 

 About the age of fifteen he was entered at Magdalen 

 Hall, Oxford, where he was put through the usual 

 course of Aristotelian logic and physics. His 

 intellectual interests remained entirely unawakened, 

 and long afterwards he attacked the universities in 

 no measured terms for their failure to keep pace 

 with the time. At the age of twenty, having 

 taken his degree and quitted Oxford, he was 

 recommended to Lord Hardwick, afterwards Earl 

 of Devonshire, as tutor to his eldest son. This 

 was the beginning of an intimate connection with 

 that great family, which lasted through his long 

 life. In 1610 he went abroad with his pupil, ana 

 made the tour of France and Italy. Alter his 

 return he still continued to live with the Cavendish 

 family, and his residence in London afforded him 

 opportunities of becoming acquainted with Bacon, 

 Herbert of Cherbury, Ben Jonson, and other dis- 

 tinguished men of the time. The first ambition to 

 awake in him was that of the scholar, and he 

 devoted his abundant leisure to a critical reading 

 of the classical poets and historians. The outcome 

 of these studies was his translation of Thucyditles, 

 which appeared in 1628, when he had already 

 reached the mature age of forty. The Civil War 

 was already looming in the distance, and in the 

 choice of subject we may discern Hobbes's strong 

 interest in politics an interest which ultimately 

 dominated his whole philosophy. The Earl of 

 Devonshire died in 1626, ami to Hoblies's great 

 grief the second earl, his pupil, followed his father 

 to the grave in 1628. Next year Hobbes accepted 

 an engagement as travelling tutor to the son of 

 Sir Gervase Clifton, and in this capacity paid a 

 second visit to the Continent; but in 1631 his 



connection with the Devomdiiru family wan re- 

 Mimed. By the desire of the dowager-counteM 

 he undertook the education of the young earl, the 

 son (if hi.s former pupil, then only thirteen. 

 From 1634 to 1637 they travelled abroad, and on 

 this occasion HuLln-> cume into contact with 

 Galileo in Italy, while in Paris he was admitted 

 to the scientific and philosophical circle of which 

 Pere Mersenne was the centre. 



Since 1629, when chance introduced him to a 

 copy of Kurlid' a Elements, he hod been an 

 ardent student of geometry, and about the same 

 time or a little later he began to be powerfully 

 drawn to the new ' mechanical philosophy ' of 

 Galileo. In motion and the laws of motion he 

 seemed to see a universal principle of explana- 

 tion, and when he returned to England in 1637 

 it was with the outline of a comprehensive 

 philosophical system already before nis mind. 

 Descartes, whose Discourse, on Method appeared in 

 that year, was also an adherent of the new physics, 

 but limited and supplemented its explanations 

 by the subjective principle of self-consciousness. 

 Hobbes did not occupy himself (except incident- 

 ally) with the philosophical question of knowledge, 

 but contented himself with giving an objective 

 explanation of sensation and all mental facts in 

 terms of motion. Regarded as the object of science, 

 the world consisted, in Hobbes's view, of natural 

 bodies (inanimate and animate) and political 

 bodies, or organised aggregates of living men. 

 Natural philosophy and civfl philosophy therefore 

 cover the whole ground ; but, as the explanation of 

 civil institutions is to be found in the nature of 

 man, man stands out from among all other natural 

 bodies, and forms, as it were, a bridge between 

 nature and society. Accordingly Hobbes planned 

 three systematic treatises, De Corpore, De nomine, 

 De Give ; but the pressure of political events 

 prevented him from publishing his ideas in their 

 natural sequence, and some parts of the scheme 

 are much less fully worked out than others. On 

 his return to England he continued to live with the 

 young Earl of Devonshire, and was on intimate 

 terms with Lord Falkland, Hyde, and others 

 engaged in the political struggles of the time. 

 The need of a political philosophy which would 

 put an end to anarchy by a true theory of the 

 governing power became every day clearer to him, 

 and in 1640 he wrote ' a little treatise in English ' 

 in defence of the royal prerogative. This is 

 preserved in MS. under the title of The Elements 

 of Law, Natural and Politique, and is identical 

 with the two treatises, Human Nature and De Cor- 

 pore Politico, published separately ten years jater. 

 Fearful lest the Parliament should take notice of 

 his treatise, Hobbes Hed in the same year to Paris, 

 which continued to be his home till 1651. 



He was welcomed by his scientific friends, and 

 Merseune induced him to contribute to Descartes' 

 Meditations a series of criticisms thereon. But the 

 political needs of the time still lay nearest his 

 heart, and in 1642 appeared the De Cive, a fuller 

 statement of his theory of government. Very few 

 copies of this edition were struck off, and the book 

 appeared with a new title in 1647 as Elenu-ntn 

 I'liilusophica de Cive. In 1650 appeared the 

 two treatises already mentioned, ana in 1651 he 

 issued a vigorous English translation of the De ( Y/v 

 (Philosophical lindiun-nts <-<>m-crniiig Gorcriniieiit 

 ami Society) by way of introduction to the com- 

 prehensive English work on which he had Wen 

 engaged for several years. Leviathan was printed 

 in Kngland, and appeared in the summer of 1651. 

 Its rationalistic criticism and its uncompromising 

 reduction of religion to a department of state 

 mortally offended the royalist clergy of the exiled 

 court. Hobbes had been mathematical tutor to 



