212 



MINERVA 



MINES 



See AlthuM, Spa* of Europe (18G2); Glover, Mineral 

 Wafer* (1K57); Tichlioiinie nd Prcwser Jme, Mineral 

 Wateri of Europe (188:J); Brdhw'8 Dietimuun of 

 Mineral Wateri (new ed. 1H8B); Walton, The Mineral 

 Wateri of the United State* and Canada (1875); (i,r- 

 m.n work'nby Herachfeld nd Fielder ( 1H75- 70), Illinium 

 ( 1H77), Flechig (1882) ; mid the work* cited at HKALTH- 



KMOBTB. 



Minerva, the name of a Roman goddess, 

 idrntilied I iy the later Gnvcising Homans with 

 the Greek Athena (q.v.). HIT muni- is thought to 



spring friini the same root as mrns (' mind '); 

 and the ancient Latin scholar and critic, Varro, 

 regarded her as the impersonation nf divine thought 



the plan of tin- material universe of which Jupiter 

 was the creator and Juno the representative. 

 Hence all that goes on among men, all that e<>n- 

 stitutes the development of human destiny itself 

 lint the expression of the divine idea or intention 



is under her care. She is the patroness of arts 

 and trade*, and w;us invoked alike by poets, 

 painter*, teachers. physicians, and all kinds of 

 craftsmen. She also guides heroes in war; and, 

 in fact, evcrv wise idea, every bold act, ami every 

 useful design owes something to the high inspira- 

 tion of this virgin goddess. Her oldest temple 

 at Home was that on the Capitol, but she had 

 another on the Aventine. Her festival was held 

 in March, and lasted live days, from the 19th to 

 the '2,'id inclusive. 



Minerva-press, the name of a printing-office 

 in Leadenhall Street, London, from which issued 

 in the later part of the 18th and the earlier part 

 of the 19th century a long series of highly seiiti 

 mental novels, with remarkably intricate plots and 

 an ample measure of tribulation and tears before 

 the happy denouement was reached. These were 

 gradually laughed out of existence as a taste 

 for more humane and healthy liction spread over 

 England. 



Miliervlno, an agricultural town of Southern 

 Italy, 44 miles W. of liari. 1'op. 14,972. 



MillOS. MILITARY, are underground passages by 

 means of which explosives are lodged in sm-li a 

 jiosition as to destroy the enemy's works or to gain 

 cover for lodgments from which the besieger may 

 continue his advance. They are generally hut a 

 few feet below the surface, never driven through 

 rock for any distance, and require lining with 

 wooden raxex. 



llefore the invention of gunpowder, mines were 

 constantly uscil to effect an entrance into a In-sicked 

 place or to breach its walls by underpinning them 

 with timber, which was then set on lire. l!y means 

 of them Alexander the Great breached the walls of 

 Gaza. C.i-sar found tin; Gaul.s skilled in their use, 

 and even able to arrest the progress of his own 

 miners. Powder mines began to be largely n-e,l 

 early in the Kith century. At the siege of I'adna 

 in 1509 the breaches were mined and the mines 

 exploded under the feet of the storming panic's. 

 f'litiHti-riiiini'*. too, liehind the walls near their base, 



and then long galleries from them under the ditch 

 with transversals ami listeners were added to the 

 permanent fortilications of the 17th century. 

 These enabled the l>esieged to ascertain the 

 direction of the besiegers' mining approach and to 

 destroy his galleries bv timely explosions. Thus 

 at the siege of Candia liy tin' Turks, which lasted 

 two year* and a half ('(667-09), i ..... < than l.'HK 

 mine* were exploded by one side or the other. 

 Systems of countermines became very elalnirati 

 during the IHth century, radiating from the salients 

 sometimes in several tiers; the lengi li of the galh i ie 

 for a single front in some canon amounted to :i 

 mile* or more. Modern systems are perhaps lens 

 elaborate, but their importance is fully recognised. 



When the besieger can no longer advance liy 

 surface approaches he has recourse to mining, sink- 

 ing a vertical shaft (4' x > inside measurement ) or 

 an inclined gallery (6' 8" x 6' 6" or 4' 10" > I 

 generally from the third parallel, anil from it 

 working his way forwards. lininrh i/nl/rrie* 

 3' 15" x 2' (are broken out wherever necessary, and 

 specially constructed fUnnis litted throughout as 

 the work progres.se*. In such a confined space only 

 \eiy small tools can be used, and only one man 

 can' work at the head of a gallery at one time, 

 loing aUmt 12 inches an hour. Small trucks and 

 liellows, or other ventilating appliances, are also 

 necessary. At the bead of the gallery a chamber 

 is constructed to hold the charge, which is then 

 t,nit/ifi/ that is to say, the gallery in rear is tilled 

 with earth, for a distance greater than the length 

 of the line of least renistanrf, or distance to the 

 nearest surface, and fired by electricity, powder 

 hose, or Ueckford s fuse. If the circular opening 

 made by the explosion has a diameter eipial to the 

 line of least resistance it is called a one-lined 

 rrntt-r ; if double that line, a. two-lined crnd-r, and 

 so on. Mini's producing tu'u-linrd crutirs are 

 railed riinnii'iii minis: those so lightly charged as 

 to produce, no craters are called nuinn/flets. The 

 latter are used by the defender to destroy the 

 assailant's mines without forming craters which 

 he might utilise as lodgments. Gunpowder is 

 preferred to other explosives if the gallery is to bo 

 used again, as the fumes are not so noxious. 



Mining tactics require very great coolie 

 judgment, and resolution, especially on tin- part 

 of the besieged. He must from his listening 

 galleries estimate the distance of the enemy and 

 avoid exploding his countermines too soon or he 

 will only injure his own galleries. If he ceases to 

 hear the miner's truck running in the enemy's 

 gallery he will know that tamping has commenced 

 and that, if within range, the time has come to 



explode his ,;i,iiiiiifli-t. The defender is restricted 



to small charges for feai of making craters, unless 

 his rountrimine galleries are very deep, while the 

 besieger can ail vant agcously use very large ones. 

 Thus the former may be said to light with a 

 short-range weapon against an adversary using one 

 which is effective at a greater distance. The chief 

 point in his favour is that he can prepare before- 

 hand a network of galleries, and by using boring 

 tools he can place charges some distance in 

 advance of their beads : but the besieger will 

 ;:tin their disjiosition and extent by nic:ms 

 of plans or spies, and will place heavily charged 

 niinc-s on a line as nearly as possible parallel to 



tl mis of the countermines, but not nearer than 



14 yards, the distance at which work is audible 

 to the enemy. These are lircd and lodgments 

 formed in their craters from which the same tactics 

 are re|ieated ; the countermines when broken into 

 . ..-ciipied. and thus ground is gradually gained, 

 and the defender diivcn back step by step until 

 the eoiinteiscarp is readied. This wall is broken 

 through by a mine, the ditch cios-ed. llie breach 

 reached and occupied. Under the breach the 

 defender will have placed mines which he will 

 spring at the moment ot assault. 



Somewhat akin to these latter nre the </''<""''' 

 li,,-/ii;l ... < placed in front of a work close under 

 the surface of the ground over which the enemy 

 must pass to the assault, and tiled by the pressure 

 of his weight u|>ori them. These are chielly of use 

 against savages, and were largely employed by 

 Cencral Cordon in the defetK f Khartoum. 



Another similar form of defence called a foit- 

 (/d.s.vc is an excavation in the form of the frnstrum 

 of a cone with its axis inclined at aliou! 40 with 

 the horizon. The charge is placed in a recess 

 at the bottom, covered with a strong wooden 



