MINGHETTI 



MINIATURE-PAINTING 



213 



platform on which rough stones, bricks, or shells 

 are placed. On l>eing fired these are projected 

 forward and cover a large surface of the ground 

 in front. Eighty pounds of powder would throw 5 

 tons of bricks and stones over a space ICO yards 

 long and 120 broad. A shell fouyaxse is simply a 

 box buried in the ground, the lower part tilled with 

 powder and the upper with shells. It is generally 

 self-exploding, like the ground torpedo. 



tiiiliiiutrinc mines are charges of explosive 

 material (usually gun-cotton or dynamite ) sunk in 

 rivers, estuaries, or roadsteads to prevent the 

 passage of hostile ships. They are either observa- 

 tion mines, fired by electricity from an observing 

 station ; controlled electro-contact mines, fired by 

 the defender when a vessel striking them gives 

 notice of its being over them ; uncontrolled mines, 

 mechanical, electro-mechanical, or chemical, which 

 are exploded when struck with adequate force by 

 friend or foe ; or dormant mines, which, sunk at 

 first, can at any time be caused to rise and obstruct 

 the passage. 



Submarine mines are usually placed chequerwise 

 in several rows and groups and often at varying 

 depths. Observation mines cannot I* relied upon 

 at greater distances than one sea mile in foggy 

 weather, and at night must 1* watched by electric 

 search-lights. With contact mines there is the 

 danger of friendly ships mistaking the channel. 

 All mine fields must be defended by heavy guns 

 placed in batteries secure against landing parties, 

 otherwise the enemy's boatx will creep tor the 

 mini's or clear a passage through them by explod- 

 ing countermines. It is so difficult to arrange a 

 system of mines which will not interfere with the 

 passage of friendly ships and yet can In- relied 

 u|H>n in prevent that of an enemy's vessels at all 

 times and in all weathers, however disguised, that 

 they are only unobjectionable when used for the 

 absolute closing of comparatively narrow channels 

 to all traffic. 



Some sea-forts have torpedo passages from which 

 Whitehead fish torpedoes ami similar projectiles 

 can lie discharged ; but these can hardly be classed 

 as submarine mines. 



Minuhclti, MARCO, Cavour's most distin- 

 guNii'il disciple and successor as leader of the 

 Italian Right, was l>orn 8th September 1818 of a 

 commercial family in Bologna, iind supplemented a 

 brilliant course at its university by a prolonged 

 tour in France, Germany, and Great Britain, tree 

 trade as vindicated by Richard CoWen found him 

 prepared for its acceptance, by familiarity with 

 the teaching of its Tuscan anticipator Bandini. 

 With the election in 1846 of Poj>e Pins IX. 

 young Italy's aspirations for national unity and 

 constitutional government seemed nearing their 

 fruition, and Minghctti started a journal in aid 

 of his country's regeneration. He enjoyed Pio 

 Nono's favour, and was made member of the 

 M'unsulta ilella Finalize' and minister of Public 

 A\ mks. But under the pressure of Austria, backed 

 bv Radetsky's forces, the pope's reforming zeal was 

 short-lived, and Minghittti, liKe others of his school, 

 abjured the papal government and enrolled in the 

 Sardinia army to fight for his country's cause 

 under King Charles Allicrt. He served with dis- 

 tinction in the Lombard campaign ; was promoted 

 captain, then major ; and on the field of Custoza 

 earned the cross of the Knights of St Maurizio. 

 After the fatal defeat at Novara he settled at 

 Turin, an ardent student of economics and devoted 

 frii'Mil of Cavour, whose confidences he shared 

 during the diplomatic meetings at Paris which pre- 

 Cfd'-d tin' Crimean war, the war of 1859, and the 



expulsion of Austria from Lombardy. In the event- 

 ful years 1859-60 he was Cavour's secretary for 

 foreign affairs, till he resigned with his chief over 



the treaty of Villafranca. His next post was that 

 of minister of the Interior, and on Cavour's death 

 in June 1861 he was regarded as his ablest repre- 

 sentative in the Italian chamber. In 1863 he lie- 

 came prime-minister, in 1864 he concluded with the 

 Emperor Napoleon the 'September Convention.' In 

 1868 he was Italian minister in London, and there- 

 after minister of Agriculture. In 1870 the collapse 

 of the Second Empire brought with it the dissolu- 

 tion of the September Convention, and Rome be- 

 came the capital of Italy and seat of government. 

 From 1873 to 1876 Minglietti was prime-minister 

 for the second time, and among many useful 

 measures earned his country's gratitude by effect- 

 ing the ' paraggio ' or financial equilibrium between 

 her outlay and income. For tlie next ten year* 

 Minglietti was still the most prominent member of 

 the Italian parliament. His lectures and essays on 

 Raphael and Dante illustrate on the icsthetic side a 

 catholicity of culture which in the sphere of practical 

 politics can point to his treatises on Economic! 

 1'nlilirit (1859) and La Cliiesa e lo Stato (1878). 

 He died in Rome, 10th December 1886. See his 

 Miei Bicordi (Turin, 1888). 



Uliugrelia. See GEORGIA, CAUCASUS. 



llinho (Span. Mino, anc. Minins), a river of 

 Spain and Portugal, rises in the north-east of 

 Galicia, Hows south-west through the Spanish 

 provinces of Lugo and Orense, and, after forming 

 the boundary between Portugal and Spain, falls 

 into the Atlantic Ocean. Its total length is 174 

 miles, and it is navigable for small craft 25 miles 

 above its mouth ; a bar at the entrance prevents 

 the passage of large vessels. Area of basin, 157,000 

 sq. m. Its chief tributary is the Sil, which joins it 

 from the left. 



Miniature-painting, or the painting of por- 

 traits on a small scale, originated in the practice 

 of embellishing manuscript books (see ILLUMINA- 

 TION OF MAS (.'SCRIPTS). As the initial letters 

 were written with red lead (Lat. minium), the art 

 of illumination was expressed by the Low Latin 

 verb mini nre, and the term miniatura was applied 

 to the small pictures introduced. After the inven- 

 tion of printing and engraving this delicate art 

 entered on anew phase ; copies in small dimensions 

 of celebrated pictures came to be in considerable 

 request, and, in particular, there arose such a de- 

 mand for miniature-portraits that a miniature in 

 popular language came to signify 'a very small 

 portrait.' Soon after their introduction miniature- 

 portraits were executed with very great skill in 

 England. Holliein (c. 1495-1543) painted exquisite 

 miniatures, and having settled in London, his works 

 had great influence in calling forth native talent. 

 The works of Nicholas Billiard (bora at Exeter 

 1547, died 1619) are justly held in high estimation. 

 Isaac Oliver (1556-1617) was employed by Queen 

 Elizalieth and most of the distinguished charactero 

 of the time ; his works are remarkable for careful 

 and elaborate execution ; and his son, Peter Oliver 

 (1601-47), achieved even a higher reputation. 

 Thomas Flatnian (1637-88) painted good minia- 

 tures. Samuel Cooper (born at London 1609, died 

 1672), who was with his brother Alexander a pupil 

 of his uncle, John Hoskins, an artist of reputation 

 (died 1664), carried miniature-painting to high 

 excellence. Cromwell and Milton sat to him ; Tie 

 was employed by Charles II., and obtained the 

 highest patronage at the courts of France and in 

 Holland. Jean Petitot ( 1607-91 ) was the first to 

 bring to perfection the art of enamelling as ap- 

 plied to portraiture. There are as many as fifty- 

 eight examples of this great artist in the Jones 

 Collection at the South Kensington Museum. 

 Hichard Cosway (1740-1821) was one of the 

 most famous miniaturists of the 18th century. 



