MONASTIR 



MONEY 



269 



abbey in the 12th and 13th centuries. In later 

 times the simplicity of the plan was broken in 

 upon. The monks, desirous of more comfortable 

 quarters, divided the dormitory and made it into 

 cells. The open windows were glazed, and even 

 the arches of the cloisters were sometimes enclosed. 

 The early simplicity of the architectural style was 

 also departed from, and the monastic buildings of 

 tlie 15tn century are as rich in decoration as the 

 cathedrals and parish churches. The arrangements 

 of the monasteries of the other orders were, gener- 

 ally speaking, similar to those of the Cistercian, 

 except in the case of the Carthusians. In their 

 convents, where al>solute solitude and silence were 

 required, each monk had a small house and garden 

 to himself. These were arranged round the 

 cloister, which, when the numl>er of monks was 

 large, were greatly extended in dimensions. 



See Viollet le Unc, Dictionnairt and Architecture 

 Monaitir/uc ; De Caumont. Abfefdaire d'Arrheolot/ie ; 

 Dugilale, Afonaf(ieo ; and Mackenzie Walcot'a works 

 on the English and Scottish Churches. For Munasticism, 

 we MOXACHINX. 



Moiiastir. called also BITOLIA, the second 

 town in Turkish Macedonia, is situated in a broad 

 mountain-valley, 90 miles NVV. of Salonica. It 

 manufactures carpets and silver filigree, and trades 

 in corn and agricultural products. The Turks, re- 

 cognising its strategic imi>ortance, have made it the 

 headquarters of an army corps. Under its ancient 

 name of Pelagonia it gives title to a Greek arch- 

 bishop. Here the Albanian beys were massacred 

 in 1833. Pop. 45,000. 



Monboddo, JAMES BURNETT, LORD, Scottish 

 lawver and author, was born at Monboddo House, 

 in Fordonn parish, Kincardineshirc, in 1714, and 

 was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, 

 and Edinburgh University, afterwards studying 

 law for three years at Groningen, in Holland. 

 In 1737 he was called to the Scottish bar, and 

 soon obtained considerable practice ; but the first 

 thing that brought him prominently into notice 

 was nis connection with the celebrated Douglas 

 case, in which he acted as counsel for Mr 

 Douglas. In 1764 lie became sheriff of Kin- 

 cardineshire, and in 1767 was raised to the bench 

 by the title of Lord Monboddo. He died in 

 Edinburgh, 26th May 1799. Monboddo's Origin 

 and Progress of Language (6 vols. 1773-92) is a 

 very learned, heretical, and eccentric production ; 

 yet in the midst of its grotesque crotchets there 

 occasionally flashes out a wonderfully acute obser- 

 vation, that makes one regret the distorted and 

 misapplied, talent of the author. Its evolution 

 theory and its assertion of a close relation between 

 man and the orang-outang seems less laughable 

 now tlian it did to Monlxxldo's contemporaries ; and 

 in his study of man as one of the animals, and of 

 civilisation by the light of savngcry, he certainly 

 antifipated the modern science of anthropology. 

 Monlmddo published, also anonymously, another 

 work, Ancient Metaphysics (6 vols. 1779-99). 



llonltiltl II. a Negro stock in the basin of the 

 Upper Nile and the Upper Welle. See AFRICA. 



Moncalicri. a town of Italy, on the Po, 5 miles 

 8. of Turin, with a royal palace ( 1470). Pop. 3463. 



MoncontOlir, a village in the French depart- 

 ment of Vienne, situated 48 miles SW. of Tours, 

 was the scene of the defeat of the Huguenots under 

 Coligny by the troopa of the king of France, 3d 

 October 1569. 



MoneriofT Pits (named after the inventor, Sir 

 Alexander MoncriefT) are excavations in which 

 heavy guns are placed in coast batteries or other 

 places where it is specially necessary to protect 

 them from hostile artillery fire. The Moncrieff 

 system of mounting utilises the force of recoil to 



bring the gun down into the loading position at 

 the bottom of the pit. It is returned into the 

 firing position (shown in the figure) either, as in 

 the early patterns, by means of a heavy counter- 

 weight in front of the breast of the gun-carriage, 

 or, as in later designs, by hydro-pneumatic 

 machinery. When the counterweight is used, the 

 side brackets of the carriage on which the dis- 

 appearing movement takes place are made on a 

 specially designed curve, so that this movement 

 may lie regular and without any violent shock. 

 The figure represents a diagrammatic section of 

 this arrangement. A is the rotating side bracket 



revolving on teeth ; BC are two inclined planes 

 keeping the gun horizontal as it descends into the 

 position shown by dotted lines. The same result 

 is obtained in the hydro-pneumatic system of 

 mounting by means of recoil presses, which also 

 store up the force of the recoil and enable it to 

 be used to elevate the gun into the firing position. 

 The invention belongs to the years 1868-72. 



llonrton, a town and port of entry of New 

 Brunswick, on the Petitcwliac River, 89 miles by 

 rail NE. of St John. It has important railway- 

 shops, a large eugar-refinerv, a cotton-factory, &c. 

 Pop. ( 1881 ) 5032 ; ( 1891 ) 8765. 



Mon'ilovi. a cathedral city of Italy, 58 miles 

 S. of Turin by rail. Pop. 10,302. Here, on 22d 

 April 1796, the Sardinians were totally defeated 

 by Napoleon. 



Monc'ra, a class of Protozoa (q.v.) proposed 

 by Haeckel to include the very lowest organisms 

 supposed to be destitute of a nucleus. As this 

 structure has been shown to exist in forms where 

 it was formerly denied, the title is now being 

 abandoned. See PROTOZOA. 



Money. The term money is used, both in 

 matters of business and in economic theories, in 

 such very different ways that it is impossible to 

 cover them all with a simple definition. Standard 

 coins, bars of bullion winch can at once be con- 

 verted into standard coins, token coins, convertible 

 bank-notes, inconvertible notes, are all included 

 under 'money,' although they present essential 

 differences. In modern societies one of the most 

 important forms of money is ' bank money,' or the 

 money of the money-market, which for the most 

 part consists of neither coin nor notes. The whole 

 of the banking system of the United Kingdom, 

 for example, as well explained in Bagehot's Lom- 

 bard Street, really rests upon the reserve kept by 

 the Bank of England, and every bank receives 

 deposits of 'money,' and makes advances of 

 ' money," with the use of a very small proportion of 

 coins or bank-notes. A brief survey of the develop- 

 ment of the complex monetary system of modern 

 societies from its rudimentary forms will give the 

 l>est explanation of this uncertainty in the mean- 

 ing of this familiar word, and also bring out in the 

 clearest way the principal functions of 'money.' 



Exchanges first take place by means of barter, but 

 the difficulties of simple barter are obviously very 



