276 



MONOD 



MONOPOLY 



grouped at S|i:ulicill(ir:i*. The Ilelobm- (including 

 .liiiica;:iiic;c, Alismacea', Hydrochiiridaceif ) are 

 also of s|-cial interest, as representing in some 

 respect* more primeval forms, and pointing lck 

 to a common ancestry with dicotyledons, gee 

 VISITABLE Knrorxnc, MM! minor peek] articles; 

 also Goeliel's, Van Tieghem's, or other text hooks 

 of botany. For .systematic details, gee Engler'g 

 Pflanzcnfamilten or the Genera Plttntariuu. 



Moiiod, ADOLPHE, an active theologian of the 

 Reformed Church, was born in 1802 at Co|>enhagen, 

 the son of a preacher, himself a native of Geneva. 

 He studied at Geneva, and lalioured as a preacher 

 at Naples and Lyons, as a professor nt MonUuiban, 

 and again as a preacher in Paris until his death, 

 6th April 18oG. He published sermons and many 

 religious works which were widely popular.- His 

 brother, |M:I:II] IMC, Imrn 17th May'lT'.H a! .Monii.-t/, 

 in the runton of Vnud, was thirty veal's aprominent 

 pastor in I'uris, and founded in 1H49, together with 

 I 'aunt Gosparin, the Fret- Keformed Church of 

 France. He edited until his death, 3(>th IVcemlier 

 1803, the Areltirc.1 I/H < 'liristiitnisme. See Adolphe'g 

 Life and Letters (Eng. trans. 1885). 



Monodon. See NARWHAL. 



MoilU'HoilS (Gr. monon, 'one,' and oikion, 'a 

 habitation'), a term introduced by Linim-us to 

 describe those plant-s which have the stamens and 

 pistil in dim-rent (lowers, but upon the snmc plant 

 e.g. hop, liox, birch, beech, alder, oak, hazel. 

 Such plants formed one of the classes (Mono 

 of the Linnean system, but were obviously a 

 specially artificial alliance, since that partial or 

 complete separation of the sexes to which we apply 

 the terms monoi-inus or diovious respectively arises 

 continually aiming tlie most unrelated plants or 

 animals. See Ki.oWKK, SKX. 



Moiiogrnists. See ETHNOLOGY. 

 Monogram (Gr. ), a character composed of two 

 or more letters of thcnlphaljet, often interlaced with 

 other lines, and used as a cipher or abbreviation of 

 a name. A perfect monogram is one in which all 

 the letters of the word are to IK> traced. They are 

 found on early Greek coins, medals, and seals, and 

 on the family coins of Koine, but not on the coins 

 of the earlier llomnn cm|>erorg. ConMant un- 

 placed on his coins one of the earliest of Christian 

 monograms, eompo-cd of the first and second letters 

 of xi'isroz (Christos), a monogram which also 

 api-ared on the Labarnm i see 

 CROSS, Vol. III. p. 5H2; ami 

 C.INM-ANTIXK): we often tind 

 it combined with the first 

 and last letters of the Greek 

 alphaliet ( Kev. i. 8 ). Another 

 well known monogram is that 

 of the name of Jesus, Ills, 

 from the first three letters of 

 IIISOTI. POJH-X, cmperoi-K, 

 ami kings of France during 

 Fig. 1. the middle ages were in the 



practice of using a monogram 



instead of tripling their namex. Fig. 1 represents 

 that of Charlemagne, a perfect monogram, in w hieh 

 all the letters of Kit ml us can In- traced. 

 Painters and engravers in Germany and 

 Italy have UHcd monograms to a large 

 extent an a means of distinguishing their 

 woiks. Fig. 'i is the moiiogiiim of Alliert 

 Dilrer. fhe first typographers made use 

 of monograms or ciphers, a xenon of which, 

 well known to the bibliograpln-r. lives the identity 

 of the ancient edition,.. German, Italian, and Kug- 

 li-h. from the invention of printing down to the 

 middle or end of the 10th century. Those of 

 William Caxton and Gas pan! Philippe, an old 

 Paris printer, will be found at HOOK, Vol. II. p. 



I. 

 FSg.i 



303. See Hrulliot, f>irlii,,iii,n'rc i/t.t 



( IS34>; Duplcssis, Itirtimi miii-f t/rs Muram'x ( \' 



1887). Potters' marks will IK- found at POTTERY. 



Monograph (Gr.), * work in which a par- 

 ticular subject in any sciei is ti eat e< I by itself, and 



forms the whole subject of the work 'an all-sided 

 and exhaustive study cif a s|iccial or limited suh- 

 iect." The term is often loo,cly use.l fur a small 

 book on miscellaneous topics. 



Monolith. See STAXDINO-STOXES. 



Monomania. See INSANITY. 



Monometallism. See UIMKTAU.ISM. 



Moiioiuotopn. See AFRICA, Vol. I. p. 87. 



tlnilOIIgnhe'la, a river which rises in V 

 Virginia and Mows north to Pittsburgh, where it 

 unites with the Alleghany to foim the Ohio. 



Mono'pll> sites. ( 'hrist ians who hold that Christ 

 has only (/;/< nature (Gr. minion, 'one;' ji/n/sis, 

 'nature ""). See GKKEK I'm i:m. Vol. \. i 



Monouoli. a town of Southern Italy, on the 

 Adriatic, 4S miles by rail N\V. of Itrindisi, with a 

 eatheilial. ain-ient walls, and a castle built in 1552 

 by Charles V. Pop. 13,154. 



Monopoly is properly definable as the sole or 



exclusive right of selling or trading cnjo\ed by an 

 individual or grouji of individuals. In its strict 

 sense monopoly belongs to an economic era which 

 has passed away. During mediii-val times and the 

 period that followed, exclusive rights prevailed 

 in almost all departpient-s. There were manorial 

 rights which circumscribed individual action. The 

 city and the guild had their spheres of production 

 ami of trade more or less clearly defined, and more 

 or less thoroughly recognised in practice. The 

 central governments which anise on the ruins of the 

 mediicval system continued to recognise such ex- 

 clusive rights, sometimes conferring on favoured 

 individuals the sole privilege of selling the most 

 necess:ir\ articles of life, in other cases granting 

 to great companies the monopoly of trade OMT 

 immense regions of the world. It is with these 

 instances that the name monopoly is most strictly 

 ,!-s"riat<-d in history. The last parliament of 

 Kli/a belli, held in ItXll, pronounced an emphatic 

 condemnation of the monopolies granted by that 

 ipieen, and even she had to yield to the storm. 

 Salt and coal were among the articles whose sale 

 was thus subject to monopoly. One of the mem- 

 bers made a xensation by asking: 'Is not bread 

 among the number?' Curiously enough, the pre- 

 vious year saw the foundation by royal charier of 

 the greatest of the companies which were based on 



1 1 xelusive right of trade in an immense foreign 



market, the K.-ist India (' pany. The opposition 



lo monopolies at home eontiiried under the 

 Smarts, and I heir abolition may be regarded as one 

 of the important rcHulte of the great parliamentary 

 struggle of that time. 



The spread of freedom has tended to the aliolition 

 of such monopolies, whether vested in individuals, 

 in trade corporal ions, or in i;icat companies en 

 gaffed in foreign commerce.. Hut, while the mono- 

 poly of law has *o tar passed away, new tendencies 

 towards a monopoly of fact have been setting in. 

 1'nder the prevalent system it is still the nim of 

 the competitor to secure as far ns possible the ex- 

 elusive sale of the commodity in which he deals, 

 either in the world-market or over a given portion 

 of it ; and when the single competitor is not strong 

 enough to accomplish this, he seeks to attain his 

 object by i b ination with a group of those en- 

 gaged in the same business. The modem trn*t 

 syndicate or union is the outcome of such eMbns; 

 and the great danger attendant on such gigantic 

 combinations is the establishment of a monopoly 



