PAPER 



739 



bewildering, but of the number only two have come 

 into use to any general extent ; these are esparto 

 and wood-pulp. The best sources of fibre for the 

 paper-maker's use are linen and cotton rags for 

 white paper, and hempen cordage for brown ; but 

 the modern uses of paper have become so numerous 

 that rags are no longer available in sufficient 

 quantities for paper-making. Having regard to 

 the composition of paper, the supply would at first 

 seem to be illimitable, inasmuch as woody fibre is 

 amongst the most common of vegetable things. 

 Practice, however, soon teaches the important 

 lessons ( 1 ) that not all woody fibre is equally well 

 adapted for the production of paper, and (2) that 

 many vegetable growths are built up of admirable 

 cellulose for the paper-maker's use, but yield it 

 with such trouble and at such cost as to be wholly 

 unremunerative. Much caustic soda or soda-ash is 

 required in the preparation of many fibres. 



Raw fibre may le divided into four classes : ( 1 ) 

 that which is easily reduced and easily bleached ; 

 (2) that which is difficult to bleach ; (3) that which 

 is difficult to reduce, but easily bleached ; and (4) 

 that wherein perfect bleaching affects the integ- 

 rity of the fibre. The longer the fibres and the 

 more intricate the mixture of them when wet, the 

 stronger will be the sheet of paper when dry. The 

 shorter the fibres, the less pliable will they become 

 with water, as in the case of ground wood, and the 

 less will be the pressure which individual fibres 

 exert on each other, and the more brittle will the 

 paper sheet turn out. 



Various early attempts to employ Esparto (q.v.) 

 for paper-making are recorded. One patent dates 

 back to 1839, and paper made of it was shown at 

 the London Exhibition in 1851. But to the late 

 Mr T. Routledge is mainly due its extensive em- 

 ployment by the trade. He commenced with a 

 few tons at the Eynsham Mills in 1856, and the 

 paper for the number of the Society of Arts weekly 

 journal for November 28 of that year was made 

 of it. For several years the makers looked very 

 coldly on this new material, but gradually by the 

 aid of Mr Pirie, Mr E. Lloyd, and others it became 

 universally adopted. From an import of 891 tons 

 in 1861 it has gradually increased as follows : in 

 1870, 89,156 tons; 1880, 191,229 tons; and 1890, 

 217,048 tons. The United Kingdom has hitherto 

 monopolised the supply. Esparto is treated much 

 like straw, but does not require as much soda-ash 

 and chlorine to bleach it. The fibres are easily 

 dissolved and bleached by chemicals. They felt 

 readily anil yield an excellent pulp, which is em- 

 ployed alone, or mixed with rags, wood-pulp, or 

 straw. It furnishes a paper pliant, resistant, trans- 

 parent, and of great purity, thicker than other 

 papers of the same weight, and forming a good 

 printing and writing substance. 



The culms of various cereal grasses are employed 

 where obtainable ; rice-straw in Asia, wheat, oat, 

 and other kinds of straw in Europe. Straw was 

 used a century ago for paper-making, but its exten- 

 sive use is of comparatively recent date. For low 

 papers it commands a market, but as a mixer it is 

 inferior to esparto, the internodes or knots being 

 exceedingly troublesome and difficult to get rid 

 of. The deficiency in the supply of rags and the 

 absence of any cheap substance to supplement 

 esparto have led to a great run upon wood-pulp in 

 the last few years for the paper-mills in Great 

 I'.iitain and most other countries. Its manufac- 

 ture and use dates practically back only to about 

 1870 ; indeed its general adoption may be referred 

 to the ten years later. Although not all that could 

 be wished for as an adjunct or filler, its introduc- 

 tion and employment have proved eminently useful. 

 The conifers giving the strongest and toughest fibre 

 seem to be best adapted for conversion into pulp, 



although many other species are used. The pro- 

 duction has centred chiefly in the two Scandinavian 

 countries of Norway and Sweden. From these 

 Britain yearly receives about 140,000 tons of wood- 

 pulp, besides what they ship to other countries. 

 They also make a large quantity of paper and 

 pasteboard for export. The quantity and value of 

 the paper materials received by Britain in 1889 

 were : 



Rags 42.443value 426,322 



Esparto, &c 217,256 u 1,090,266 



Wood-pulp 122,179 ii 690,892 



Total 381,878 



2,207,280 



The idea of making a paper-pulp of wood was 

 repeatedly mooted in the early part of the 19th cen- 

 tury. A patent was granted to some paper-makers 

 in Italy in 1826. Some years later the idea was 

 revived in improvements in Great Britain by Des- 

 grand, Johnson, Newton, and others. Mr Houghton 

 took out a patent in 1857. But the mechanical 

 process of Volter of Heidenheim was that which 

 gave the principal impetus to the use of wood-pulp. 

 At first the wood was simply rubbed down into 

 pulp against the periphery of a wheel with a rough 

 surface ; but now by improved chemical appliances 

 a better pulp is produced, and the manufacture has 

 become generally adopted in Europe and America, 

 adding largely to the value of their forests. Wood- 

 pulp is admirably adapted as a principal ingredient 

 in the manufacture of cheap paper. It is deficient 

 in fibre, but a moderate admixture of rags, esparto,, 

 or other fibrous material strengthens it. It waa> 

 al>out 1873 that wood-pulp began to be introduced 

 in England as a paper material. At first only 

 12,000 tons could be got rid of yearly, but in 1890 

 as much as 137,837 tons was received, chiefly from 

 Sweden and Norway. Much of the paper made ia> 

 used up a second time. Koop's patent for nework- 

 ing old waste-paper was carried on in the earlier- 

 years of the 19th century at the Neckinger Mills, 

 Bermondsey. The process of manufacture then 

 would seem to have been faulty, the paper made 

 lieing found unfit for use, and the mill was sold. 

 The process has, however, been brought extensively 

 into use of late years, old newspapers and books 

 forming much of the material for repulping. 

 Cotton and linen rags are one of the mainstays of 

 the paper- maker, and all countries are drawing 

 largely on this waste substance. In Great Britain, 

 unlike sunny climes, woollen clothing is more 

 generally worn than cotton and linen, hence 

 these used vegetable fibres are not so plentiful 

 with us as in A -in. and southern Europe. 



British imports of foreign rags were 29,642 tons, 

 valued at 451,762, in 1880; 34,889 tons, valued 

 at 354,306, in 1890 ; and 21,055 tons, valued at 

 206,772, in 1896. Much of this is re-shipped, and 

 British rags are also exported. Of ' esparto and 

 other materials' for paper-making 538,464 tons, 

 valued at 2,630,964, were imported in 1896. The 

 British export of paper in 1896 had a value of 

 1,304,483. In 1897 the imports of paper-making 

 materials had a value of 3,150,240; the value of 

 paper and stationery exported was 2,472,429. 



The prices of all paper-making materials have 

 fallen greatly since 1875; nevertheless a great im- 

 petus has been given to the use of straw and wood- 

 pulp. The demand for paper continues great. Some 

 of the London daily journals consume 100 tons 

 weekly ; but as they sell at low prices the paper 

 they use must be cheap. In order to reduce 

 the price many makers introduce into their pulp 

 sawdust and various mineral matters, such as 

 kaolin or china clay. Very often 25 to 30 per cent, 

 of such substances is introduced into these loaded 

 papers, which do for cheap journals, the sheets of 

 which have hence no solidity. But if such papers 



