PAUL 



815 



Round these central truths all the other views of 

 St Paul are crystallised. The fierce disputes in 

 which rival dogmatists St Augustine and Pelagius, 

 the Jesnits and Jansenists, the Calvinists and 

 Arminians, and many others have combated over 

 his opinions arise from the futile attempt to sys- 

 tematise exorbitant inferences drawn from isolated 

 phrases, to build upon their apexes inverted pyra- 

 mids of argument, to obscure the whole heaven of 

 Christianity with smoke made to issue ' from the 

 narrow aperture of single texts.' Such attempts 

 must always fail. St Paul's letters were ecrits de 

 circonstance. They were casual ; they were frag- 

 mentary ; they were the outcome of the special 

 conditions with which they immediately dealt. St 

 Paul ' never recoils before a paradox ; ' he never 

 cares to remove an apparent contradiction ; he 

 knew that truths which apparently contradict 

 others are often complementary truths ; he leaves 

 side by side the apparent antinomies which arise 

 from the contact or finite reason with infinite truth. 

 He was well aware that when reason steps beyond 

 the limits of experience it conies into collision 

 with mysteries not only insoluble, but apparently 

 opposite to each other. Since omnia exeunt in 

 mysterium, he was not concerned to reconcile the 

 opposite facts of predestination and free-will ; of 

 universal restoration and a twofold end of proba- 

 tion, of the necessity for human effort and yet its 

 iiieffectualness. He knew that such antinomies 

 involve no perplexity in the region of practical life. 

 While he created the language of Christian theo- 

 logy, and often enshrines a whole world of thought 

 in a single word, lie lends no sanction to the 

 theological controversialists who, with mutual 

 bitterness, have persisted in rending Christendom 

 uMinder by pursuing the great saving truths of 

 religion into speculative extremes. 



The literature bearing on St Paul is vast in extent ; 

 the following are merely the names of the more im- 

 portant modern books: (ll LIFE. K. Schrader, Der 

 Apustel Paulus (183O-36); Neander, Gesch. dtr Pflanz- 

 unf) u. Leitunfj der Christl. Kirche durch die Apoxtel 

 (vol. i. 1832; Eng. trans. 1851); F. C. Baur, Paul us 

 dtr Apustel Jeu Vhristi (1845; 2d ed. by Zeller, 1866 ; 

 Eng. trans. 1873-75); A. Hausrath, Der Apostel Paulus 

 (1865; 2d ed. 1872); Ch. F. Trip, Paulut nuch der 

 Aposteliieschichte (1866); Kenan, Le ApStres (1866) 

 and Saint Paul (1869) ; F. Bungener, S. Paul, ta Vie, 

 ton (Euvrc, ses E/Ati-es (1867) ; M. Krenkel, Paulnx, ilt'i- 

 Apostel der Heiden (18t;<J) ; W. J. Conybeare and J. S. 

 Howson, The Life and Epistles of St Paul (1852); F. 

 W. Farrar, The Life and Work uf Kt Paul (1879); 

 Lewin, The Life and Epistles of St Paul ( 1851 ; new ed. 

 1874); and good shorter studies by O. II. Taylor (1884), 

 J. .Stalker ( 1884 ), and Professor Iverach ( 1891 ). 



(2) THEOLOGY. Hitachi, Die Entstehumjder Altkatliol- 

 ttchen Kirche (2d ed. 1857); A. Sabatier, L'Apdlre 

 Paul (1870; 2d i:d.l881); K. Holsten, Zum Evanyelium 

 dr> Paul its u. Petrus (1868), and Das Eraiiyelinm des 

 /'././ ilar<iestelU(lSSOetseq.): R. Schmidt, Jlie Paulin- 

 isf/if Chrixtoloyie(ltflU); O. Pfleiderer, Der Paulinismus 

 (1*73; -'d ed. 1890; Eng. trans. 1877), and Hibbert Lec- 

 tures ( 1885 ) ; Ernesti, Die Kthik des Apostels Paulus ( 1868 ; 

 3ded. 1880); J. H. Scholten, Das Paulinische Evaru/elium 

 1 1881 ) ; K. Menegoz, Le Pi-ehe et la Redemption d'aprto St 

 Paul ( 1882 ) ; H. Gunkel, Die Wirkunrjen des Heil. Qeistes 

 r popul. Anschauun// der Apostol. Zeit. u. nach 

 tier Lehre des Apost. Paulus (1888); and Ch. Rogge, 

 Die Anschauunfi des Apostels Pan/us i-on die rfHy.-sittl. 

 I'lin,: </> Hi iili'itllmms (1888); also the general works 

 on the theology of the New Testament by Chr. F. Schmid 

 (edited by \Veizsacker, 1853), Baur (1864), B. Weiss 

 (1868; Kng. trans. 1888-89), and J. J. van Oosterzce 

 (181!!); L'cle.l. 1SK6). 



See also the relevant parts of the Introductions of 

 Bleek, Weiss. S. Uavidson, Salmon, Holtzmann, &c. ; 

 and especially the works devoted to the Acts by Over- 

 beck 11870. in De Wette), Zeller (1854; Enj;. trans. 

 1875-76), H. Wendt (1888, in Meyer), and K. Schmidt 

 i. 1882); also C. Weizsacker, Das Apostol. Zeit- 



alter der Christ!. Kirche (1886). See also the countless 

 Commentaries on the individual epistles of St Paul, the 

 names of which will be found under the special articles 

 thereon. Of these may here merely be mentioned, as 

 masterpieces in their kind, those of Godet on Humans 

 and Corinthians, and Lightfoot on Philippians, Gala- 

 tians, Cotoxsians, and Philemon, 



Specially noteworthy articles on St Paul are those by 

 Hausrath m Schenkel's hibel-Lexicon ; Beyschlag in 

 Riehm's Handworterb. des bibl. Alterthums ; Lange in 

 the first edition of Herzog's Real-Enciiklopiidie, W. 

 Schmidt in the second edition ; and Hatch in the En- 

 cuclopcedia Britamiica (9th ed.). 'Ihe so-called Tubingen 

 theory of the fundamental distinction between the 

 Pauline and Petrine parties in the early church is main- 

 tained in the books by Baur (q.v.), Holsten, Zeller, and 

 Scholten, already mentioned. See the article CHRISTI- 

 ANITY in the present work. 



Paul was the name of live popes. PAUL I. (757- 

 767) and PAUL II. (1464-71) were unimportant. 

 PAUL III., Alessandro Farnese, reigned from 1534 

 to 1549, during a very critical period for the papacy. 

 He was born at Carino in Tuscany in 1468, and was 

 created cardinal-deacon in 1493 by Alexander VI., 

 who had illicit relations with his sister. He showed 

 great powers of diplomacy, and on the death of 

 Clement VII. in 1534 was elected pope. One of 

 his first acts was to give cardinals' hats to two of 

 his boy-grandsons, and throughout his reign he 

 laboured to advance his sons; but his ambitious 

 schemes to secure Parma and Piacenza to the 

 debauched Pietro Luigi were at length frustrated. 

 Yet in other respects he was a wise pontiff, and he 

 had the prudence to surround his throne with good 

 cardinals like Contarini, Pole, and Sadolet. He 

 convoked a general council to meet at Mantua in 

 1542, but it did not actually assemble (in Trent) 

 until 1545. The bull of excommunication and 

 deposition which he issued in 1538 against Henry 

 VIII. of England is a late example of the 

 exercise of the temporal power claimed by the 

 media-val popes. The bull instituting the order of 

 the Jesuits (1540) is important as marking the 

 beginning of the Roman counter-reformation. In 

 the contest of Charles V. with the Protestant 

 League in Germany Paul sent a large force to 

 support the emperor, and he opposed the pacifica- 

 tion proposed by him upon the basis of the Interim. 

 And in the struggle between the emperor and 

 Francis I. he tried to trim in order to save the 

 peace of Italy and the interests of his bastards. 

 He died suddenly, November 10, 1549. 



PAUL IV., named Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, a mem- 

 ber of the noble family of that name, was born in 

 Naples in 1476. His early career was distinguished 

 for ascetic rigour. He was appointed Bishop of Chieti, 

 in which see he laboured most earnestly for the 

 reformation of abuses, and for the revival of religion 

 and morality. With this view he established, in 

 conjunction with several congenial reformers, the 

 congregation of secular clergy called Theatines, 

 and was liimself the first superior. He showed 

 himself the most rigorous enemy of heresy, and it 

 was under his influence that Paul III. organised 

 the tribunal of the Inquisition in Rome. On the 

 death of Marcellns II. in 1555, although in his 

 seventy-ninth year, he was elected to succeed. 

 He enforced vigorously upon the clergy the observ- 

 ance of all the clerical duties, and enacted laws for 

 the maintenance of public morality. He established 

 a censorship, was the lirst to issue a full official 

 Index librorum prohibitorvm, and completed the 

 organisation of the Roman Inquisition ; he took 

 measures for the alleviation of the burdens of the 

 poorer classes, and for the better administration of 

 justice, not sparing even his own nephews, whom 

 he banished from Rome on account of their corrupt 

 conduct and profligate life. His foreign relations, 

 too, involved him in much labour and perplexity. 



