392 



PRESBYTERIANISM 



writing to Timothy, he says, ' Let the elders that 

 rule well be counted worthy of double honour, 

 especially they who laliour in word and doctrine' 

 (1 Tim. v. 17). Elders also arc found in all the 

 churches. We have seen them in the mother- 

 church of Jerusalem; and when Paul ami Bar 

 nabas went forth on their fust missionary journey, 

 about the year 46, they ordained elders in every 

 church (Acts, xiv. 23). Accordingly we find them 

 in Ephesus alioiii the year 60 (Acts, xx. 17), and 

 in the same city a few years later (1 Tim. v. 17, 

 with chap. i. 3), and in Crete. Titus is com- 

 manded ' to ordain elders in every city ' I Tit. i. ."> i. 

 These are the scripture facts on which the system 

 of Presbyterianism as a government by elders is 

 based. It does not recognise the bishop as the 

 superior of tho presbyter, for they were originally 

 two names of the same persons. Thus in Titus, i. 

 6, 7, the apostle writes, 'Ordain elders in every 

 city ... for a bishop must IK> blameless,' and in 

 Acts xx. those who in verse 17 are termed elders 

 in verse 28 are termed bishops. On the original 

 identity of the bishop and presbyter Bishop Light- 

 foot says, ' It is a fact now generally recognised by 

 theologians of all shades of opinion, that in the 

 language of the New Testament the same officer 

 in the church is called indifferently bishop (epia- 

 eopot) and presbyter.' There are two instances 

 in which the term ' bishop ' occurs apart from 

 his being described as 'elder,' just as there are 

 many examples of the elder being mentioned with- 

 out hi- being termed bishop ( Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. 

 iii. 2). In the writings of Clement of Rome, about 

 the end of the 1st century, there is the same identity 

 bet ween t he elder and I lie bishop ; but from tins 

 period onwards the distinction between the two 

 begins to appear, though Jerome in the 4th cen- 

 tury writes: 'Among the ancients bishop and 

 presbyter are the same, for the one is a term of 

 dignity, the other of age.' See the articles BISHOP, 

 CHURCH HISTORY, OKDKKS ( Hoi.v). 



I tnsed to beclaimed that Presbyterianism survived 

 in the ancient Celtic Church ; but the Celtic i>olity, 

 though differing widely from diocesan Episcopacy, 

 was very unlike Presbyterianism (see IRKLAND, 

 p. '210; SCOTLAND, p. 24'2; COLUMBA; CULDEKS). 

 The Waldenses (c^.v.) were perhaps anti-episcopal. 

 But Presbyterianism as we know it first asserted 

 itself at or after the Reformation, when earnest 

 attempts were everywhere made to restore to the 

 church primitive doctrine and form. In Germany, 

 France, and the Continent, from the relationship 

 of church and state, its free development was pre- 

 vented (see CONSISTORY). It was Calvin (<|.v.) 

 in (leneva who, though not its originator, gave 

 Presbyterianism the fonn which, with modifica- 

 tions, it has ever since retained. It occupies a 

 middle position between diocesan Episcopacy ami 

 Congregationalism, and may be styled ecclesiastic a I 

 republicanism. The congregation elects its own 

 minister ami ciders, and by deacons cr n:ai 

 regulates all its financial aflairs. The M ssicn, con- 

 sisting of the minister and elders, lias the spiritual 

 oversight of the congregation. The ministeis, with 

 one or more elders from each congregation, n nsti- 

 tute the presbytery (formerly sometimes (ailed 

 rlrux!x)n( a defined district, having a general super- 

 intendence of the congregations; to it appeal may 

 be made from congregations or sessions. Sine 

 churches still retain as part of the regular organisa- 

 tion the synod, consisting of a number of pn -I \ 

 teries in a province, ami a court of apjieal fr< in 

 presbyteries; other churches dispense with this 

 intermediate court. The General Assembly <T 

 General Synod is the highest court, and consists <.f 

 all tin- presbyteries or their representatives. 



Presbyterianism was for a short time dominant 

 in England, but is now most fully represented in 



Scotland, the north of Ireland, the British Colonies, 

 and the 1'nited States. 'The alliance of the !! 

 forme. I Churches holding the Presbyterian System' 

 was founded at London in IS75, and* has h.-i.| I'an 

 I'resbvterian' councils at Edinburgh (1877), Iliihi 

 delphia ilxsiii, Belfast (1884), London (1KKS) 

 Toronto (IS'.hi), Clas^.w (IS'.Mi), and Washington 

 i IS'.tiii. All churches are eligible 'having a creed 

 in harmony with the consensus of the Reformed 

 Confessions.' In 181X5 there were 28 Presbyterian 

 churches on the continent of Europe, 1'2 in the 

 1'nited Kingdom, 1<> in North America. 7 in Aus- 

 tralia. -1 in New Zealand, and '21 scattered over the 

 rest of the world K(i in all, of which 117 were in the 

 alliance. There were in all '29.364 Presbyterian 

 church buildings, _'.~>,477 ministers, and 4,627,140 

 communicants. 



Kiiyliind. The principles of the Puritans (q.v.) 

 were essentially Presbyterian, although many OX 

 them were so much occupied with questions of doc- 

 trine and discipline, and with rc-isiance to power 

 exercised, as they believed, contrary to the word 

 of God, that they paid little heed to the develop- 

 ment of their principles in church government. 

 Yet in 1572 a presbytery was formed at Wands- 

 worth, in Surrey, by ministers of London ami its 

 neighbourhood, separating from the Church of 

 England ; and other presbyteries were soon formed, 

 notwithstanding the extreme hostility of Queen 

 ElizalK'th. When the Westminster Assembly met 

 in 1643 the Puritans of England were generally in- 

 clined to adopt Presbyterianism as their system of 

 church government, although some still preferred 

 a modified Episcopacy, and some bail adopted the 

 principles of Independency or Congregationalism. 

 The Presbyterians were, however, the strongest 

 party at the beginning of the Civil War, although 

 the Independents gained the ascendency afterwards. 

 The establishment of Presbyterian church govern- 

 ment in the Church of England was voted by par- 

 liament (the Long Parliament), 13th October' 1647 ; 

 but it was never really established. The inlluence 

 of the Independents prevented it. London and its 

 neighbourhood were, meanwhile, formed into twelve 

 presbyteries, constituting the Provincial Synod of 

 London, which continued to hold regular half- 

 yearly meetings till 1655, the meetings of presby- 

 teries being continued till a later date ; but the 

 whole Presbyterian system was overturned by 

 Cromwell's Committee of Triers, appointed for the 

 examining and approving of all ]>erson8 elected or 

 nominated to any ecclesiastical office. Cromwell's 

 policy aimed at bringing all ecclesiastical matters 

 under the immediate control of the civil ]M>wer. 

 The Restoration was followed by the fruitless 

 Savoy Conference ((J.v.), and soon after by the Act 

 of I niionnity. which came into force on 24th 

 August Kiii'-' ; and on that day about 2000 ministers 

 in England and Wales resigned their benefices, or 

 submitted to be ejected from them, for conscience' 

 sake. The first Nonconformists were mostly 

 Presbyterians, but a small minority of Independ- 

 ents among them prevented the institution of a 

 regular I'resbvterian system, and the consequence 

 was that the Nonconformists of England became 

 in general practically Independent. Antitiomian- 

 ism and Arminianism soon appeared among them, 

 and were followed by Socinianism or Unitarianisni 

 to such an extent that the name Presbyterian Ije- 

 came synonymous' in England with Soriiiiiin or 

 Unitarian : old endowments, legacies of Presby- 

 terians, being in many instances enjoyed by Uni- 

 tarians. Meanwhile, there sprang up in England a 

 few congregations connected with the Church of 

 Scotland, and with what was formerly known as 

 the 'Secession Church,' now the United Presby- 

 terian Church. The number of such afterwards 

 very much increased. At the time of the formation 



