PROTOPLASM 



PROUDHON 



451 



protoplasm to the waste and repair of the organ- 

 ism. Two somewhat different views must be con- 

 sidered. We may regard protoplasm as a complex 

 sulstance or mixture of substances, which shares 

 directly in the constant chemical and physical 

 changes or metal lolism of the organism. It is the 

 climax of an ascending series of constructive or 

 synthetic steps, by which food-material becomes 

 more and more complex and unstable ; it is subject 

 as the organism lives to constant disruptive or 

 analytic changes, which result in the liberation of 

 energy and in the formation of simpler and simpler 

 waste-products. Thus protoplasm is regarded as 

 the changeful central substance in metabolism ; it 

 is continually lieing unmade, breaking up, and 

 wasting as it lives ; it is continually being made 

 by the constructive processes of repair. We call 

 the repairing or constructive process anabolism, 

 and its chemically discernible steps anastates ; we 

 call the discharging or disruptive process katabol- 

 inn, and its chemically discernible steps katastates. 



But, on the other hand, we may regard proto- 

 plasm as a kind of ferment which influences the 

 material round alxiut it without itself being so 

 directly affected as the previous conception implies. 

 It is the relatively stable cause of metabolism, act- 

 ing on less stable material of a less complex nature, 

 acting upon it so that constructive anabolic pro- 

 cesses or disruptive katabolic processes predomin- 

 ate for the time. 



Furthermore, while all are agreed that in the 

 life of organisms there is a characteristic alterna- 

 tion or antithesis between waste and repair, be- 

 tween discharge and restitution of energy, between 

 katabolism and anabolism, there is difference of 

 opinion as to the character of these antagonistic 

 processes. The English physiologist Gaskell, 

 prompted by his researches on the functions of 

 nerves, some of which command activity while 

 others induce rest, was led to regard what he called 

 analiolism and kataholism as processes which lx?ar 

 to protoplasm a relation similar to that which sleep 

 and wide-awake life liear to the organism. The 

 'winding-tip' process of anabolism or restitution 

 goes on (autonomically ) of itself; the 'running- 

 down ' process of kataholism or discharge is deter- 

 mined 1 iy stimulus. Anabolism is comparable to 

 the self-loading, kataholisin to the stimulated 

 firing of a gun. But the German physiologist 

 Hfiing, prompted by his researches on colour- 

 sensations, was led to regard what he called 

 assimilation and dis-assimilation as two antagon- 

 istic kinds of activity, both dependent on stimuli 

 which differ in their direction and results. 



Apart from the precise biological problems which 

 are raised when we seek to define the limits of our 

 analytic knowledge of living matter, there is the 

 great difficulty of forming any conception of the 

 relation between life and its physical basis. We 

 may cite Huxley's famous address on The Physical 

 Bagis of Life and Hutchison Stirling's essay As 

 ls 



Protoplasm as pre-eminent types of the 

 numerous endeavours which have been made to 

 secure accurate thinking about this supreme 

 problem. Suffice it to say that in two ways we 

 gain some knowledge of protoplasm or living 

 matter. On the one hand, we know it as it is 

 presented to our senses in living organisms, and 

 the result of our analysis of this presentation leads 

 us to recognise in protoplasm a marvellously subtle 

 kind of matter and motion, or ultimately of motion. 

 On the other hand, we have an intimate knowledge 

 of protoplasm in our own brains, where its activity 

 is manifested in thought. That we need not 

 attempt to give an explanation of ultimate realities 

 like protoplasm and thought, that thought is only 

 a function of protoplasm, that protoplasm is only a 

 form of thought, that thought and protoplasm are 



different aspects of one reality, are the respective 

 conclusions of the agnostic, the materialist, the 

 idealist, and the monist philosophers who have 

 theorised about living matter. 



See BIOLOGY, CELL, PHYSIOLOGY. The technical 

 literature on protoplasm is not readily accessible, but 

 references to researches since 1886 will be found in the 

 annual Zoological Record:; while some of the older in- 

 vestigations are cited by Prof. Geddes in the article 

 ' Protoplasm,' Ency. Brit. The student will find the 

 best introduction to modern speculations, such as those 

 of Gaskell and Hering, in Prof. Michael Foster's article 

 ' Physiology,' Ency. Bril. , in Prof. Burdon Sanderson's 

 presidential address to the Biological Section of the 

 British Association (Report Brit. Assoc. 1889), and 

 Aa.tu.re, xl. (September 1889). 



Protop'terus. See MUD-FISHES. 

 Prototheria. See ECHIDNA, MAMMALS. 



Protozoa (Gr. proton, 'first,' and zoon, 

 'animal'), simple unicellular animals, contrasted 

 with the multicellular Metazoa. Except in a few 

 cases, each Protozoon is a single cell, a unit-mass 

 of living matter physiologically complete in itself. 

 Being such a unit involves being without organs 

 and without sexual reproduction. Yet a Protozoon 

 may have parts, and two individuals may unite in 

 mutual fertilisation. A Protozoon is to any higher 

 animal, from sponge onwards, as an egg-cell is to 

 the body into which it develops. But the excep- 

 tional cases to which we referred are most im- 

 portant they are loose colonies or aggregates of 

 Protozoa. Formed by the incomplete separation of 

 dividing units, they bridge the gulf between single- 

 celled and many-celled animals. Simplest of Proto- 

 zoa are such forms as Protomyxa, whose life is a 

 succession of changeful phases, amoeboid, encysted, 

 flagellate. The others may be classified according 

 to the predominance of one or other of these phases. 

 The Rnizopoda, predominantly amreboid, include 

 Anupba and others like it, Foraminifera, Heliozoa, 

 and Kadiolaria. TheGregarines are predominantly 

 sluggish and encysted. The Infusorians are usually 

 active, ciliated, or flagellate. These classes of 

 Protozoa are discussed separately. 



Prototracheata. See PERIPATUS. 



Protractor* a mathematical instrument, used 

 in drawing or plotting, for the laying down of 

 angles. It is variously shaped, and may be cir- 

 cular, semicircular, or rectangular. 



Proud-flesh is the popular term for coarse and 

 too luxuriant granulations springing up on Wounds 

 (q.v.) or Ulcers (q.v.). See also INFLAMMATION. 



Proiullion, PIERRE JOSEPH, a noted French 

 socialist, was born July 15, 1809, at Besancon, in 

 which town his father was a poor cooper. Through 

 the good offices of charitable friends, he received 

 the rudiments of his education at the college of his 

 native place, and from the first gave great promise 

 of talent. While still very young, however, lie 

 quitted the institution in order to aid his family, 

 who had fallen into great distress, and sought 

 employment in a printing establishment. Here 

 he was noted for the most punctual discharge of 

 duty ; and, in the hours not occupied in work, he 

 contrived, by a rare exercise of resolution, to com- 

 plete and extend his education. In 1830 he declined 

 an offer of the editorship of a ministerial journal, 

 preferring an honourable independence as a work- 

 man to the career of a writer pledged to the support 

 of authority. In 1837 he became partner in the 

 development of a new typographical process ; was 

 engaged on an edition of the Bible, to which he 

 contributed notes on the principles of the Hebrew 

 language ; and in 1838 published an Essaide Gram- 

 maire Gtnerale, in approval of which a triennial 

 pension of 1500 francs was awarded to him by the 

 Academic de Besancon. On this accession of funds 



