REFORM CLUB 



REFRACTION 



617 



boards, 67,936; the parents paid 16,656, and 

 subscriptions provided 34,489. The cost of day 

 industrial schools rose from 3272 in 1879 to 

 25,558 in 1890. Of this latter sum the Treasury 

 found 6891 ; rates, 1071 ; school boards, 11,260 ; 

 and parents, 3382. The total ordinary cost of a 

 child in an industrial school ranges from 14 to 

 nearly 18 per annum. 



The statutes in force for regulating reformatory 

 and industrial schools in Ireland ditt'er somewhat 

 from those in Great Britain, and in Ireland far 

 more children in proportion to population are sent 

 to industrial schools than in Great Britain, so that 

 the Royal Commission in 1884 reported : ' It is cer- 

 tain that the certified industrial schools in Ireland 

 are regarded as institutions for poor and deserted 

 children rather than for those of a semi-criminal 

 class, and the result of this feeling is that the 

 managers of many of these institutions refuse to 

 take children who have been found to have com- 

 mitted a criminal offence, and who might legally 

 be convicted of that offence and sent to a reforma- 

 tory. All taint of criminality having been removed 

 from the schools, numbers of children are sent to 

 them who do not always come under the provision 

 of the act, and who are sent merely on the ground 

 of destitution. There can l>e no doubt that many 

 children are sent to the industrial schools in Ire- 

 land who would not be so sent in England ; whilst 

 in consequence of it it is to be apprehended that 

 numbers of children who are proper subjects for 

 these institutions are left on the streets as waifs 

 and strays." There were in Ireland, at the end of 

 1890. 816 children on the lists of the reformatory 

 schools (a decrease as compared with the previous 

 year), of whom 744 were actually in school. There 

 were 8609 children on the rolls of the industrial 

 schools (an increase on the previous year), of whom 

 7767 were actually in school the remainder mostly 

 on license. The reformatory schools in Ireland 

 cost 17,190 in 1890, of which imperial taxes bore 

 11,890, local taxes 5518; and the industrial 

 schools, 158,274, of which imperial taxes bore 

 95,842, local taxes 37,262, a decrease of cost 

 compared with the previous year for reformatory 

 schools, but an increase for industrial schools. 



The most famous of the continental reformatories 

 is that at Mettray, about 5 miles from Tours. The 

 'Colony,' as it is called, was established in 1839 by 

 M. Demetz, a French magistrate and philanthropist, 

 in conjunction with the Vicomte Bretigneres de 

 Courteilles. Its inmates, numbering 800 either 

 orphans, foundlings, or delinquents are taught 

 and employed in agricultural and various industrial 

 labours. The relapses into crime of those who have 

 left the colony have amounted only to about 4 per 

 cent. In the United States there are nearly fifty 

 reformatories for juvenile offenders under the control 

 of a state or city, with an average number of inmates 

 exceeding 12,000 ; and the reformatory results 

 attained are excellent. The New York House of 

 Refuge, which dates from the year 1824, is the oldest 

 in the country, and indeed was the first reformatory 

 for juveniles in the world which was established by 

 law and placed under legislative control. Desti- 

 tute, abandoned, or neglected children, as well as 

 delinquents, may be sent to the House of Refuge, 

 and ' there be dealt with according to law ' i.e. 

 detained, as a rule, until reformed or come of age. 

 In American reformatories the inmates spend at 

 least half their time in productive labour, but the 

 whole course of treatment is distinctly educational. 

 At Rochester, New York, the House of Refuge was 

 in 1884 turned into a state industrial school, which 

 proved so successful that it was gradually enlarged, 

 and is now in effect a school of technology, where 

 various trades are taught. The increased cost for 

 each inmate is aliout $30 per annum. 



Reform Club. See CLUBS, and L. Pagan's 

 Reform Club (1887). 



Reformed Churches, a term employed in 

 what may be called a conventional sense, not to 

 designate all the churches of the Reformation, but 

 those in which the Catvinistic doctrines and still 

 more the Calvinistic polity prevail, in contradis- 

 tinction to the Lutheran (q.v. ). The influence of 

 Calvin proved more powerful than that of Zwingli, 

 which, however, no doubt considerably modified 

 the views prevalent in many of these churches. 

 The Reformed Churches are very generally known 

 on the continent of Europe as the Calvinistic 

 Churches, whilst the name Protestant Church is in 

 some countries almost equivalent to that of Luth- 

 eran. One chief distinction of all the Reformed 

 Churches is their doctrine of the sacrament of the 

 Lord's Supper, characterised by the utter rejection 

 not only of transubstantiation, but of consubstan- 

 tiation ; and it was on this point, mainly, that the 

 controversy between the Lutherans and the Re- 

 formed was long carried on. See LORD'S SUPPER, 

 and SACRAMENT. They are also unanimous in 

 their rejection of the use of crucifixes, and of many 

 ceremonies retained by the Lutherans. Churches 

 belonging to the Reformed group are those of Eng- 

 land (in some respects) and Scotland, some churches 

 of various parts of Germany, the Protestant 

 Churches of France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, 

 Hungary, Poland, &c., with those in America 

 which have soiling from them. 



See the articles CONFESSIONS OP FAITH, ARTICLES, 

 PRAVEK-BOOK, I.LTHEK, ZWINGLI, CALVIN, KNOX; and 

 works on the distinctions between Lutheran and Reformed 

 Churches by Schweizer (1856), Hagenbach (1857), Merle 

 d'Aubigni (1861), Schneckenbufger (1855). 



Reformed Presbyterians. See CAMER- 

 ON IAN s. 



Refraction. When a beam of light, travelling 

 in a transparent medium, impinges obliquely upon 

 the surface of another transparent medium, what 

 occurs in the vast majority of cases is that a part 

 of it is reflected (see REFLECTION) and a part of 

 it enters the second medium, but in so doing is 

 refracted or bent out of its former course. If, 

 for example, the light travel in air and impinge 

 obliquely upon glass, the course of the refracted 

 portion is bent so that the refracted light travels 

 more directly or less obliquely through the glass; 

 and, conversely, if the light travel in glass and 

 impinge upon an air-surface, the portion which is 

 refracted into the air will travel through the air 

 more obliquely with respect to the refracting sur- 

 face than the original light had approached it. 

 The law of refraction was discovered by Snell 

 in 1621, and is the following: the refracted ray 

 is in the same plane with the incident and the 

 reflected ray, and is therefore in the plane of inci- 

 dence (see REFLECTION ) ; and the sine of the angle 

 of incidence bears to the sine of the angle of refrac- 

 tion a ratio which remains constant, for any two 

 media, whatever lie the angle of incidence. 



In fig. 1 a ray, AO, impinges on a denser medium 

 at O ; the angle of incidence is AON (ON being at 

 right angles to the refracting surface); the re- 

 fracted ray, instead of going on towards a', is bent 

 so as to pass through A . Draw a circle cutting AO 

 and OA' in c and c' ; draw cd and c'd' at right angles 

 to NN' ; these lines, cd and c'd', are, for the radius 

 Oc, the sines of the respective angles AON and 

 A'ON'. These sines bear to one another a certain 

 pro|>ortion, ascertained by measurement ; let it be 

 3:2; then Snell's law is that any other ray, say 

 from B, will be so refracted that the sines, similarly 

 drawn, will bear to one another the same propor- 

 tion of 3 : 2. Between air and water the ratio of 

 these sines is almost exactly 4:3; between air and 



