RHETORIC 



RHEUMATISM 



687 



peroration ; and he laid great stress on the rhetori- 

 cal capabilities of general probability. Later 

 masters of rhetoric were Tisias ; Gorgias of Leon- 

 tini, whose style was burdened with too much 

 ornament and antithesis ; Antiphon, the earliest 

 of the so-called 'Ten Attic Orators,' and the first 

 writer of speeches for others to deliver in court. 

 The speeches given by his great pupil Thucydides 

 throughout his history, and the orations of Ando- 

 cides, second of the Ten, are severely free from 

 the florid ornament of later days. Lysias was an 

 orator rather than a rhetorician ; Isocrates first 

 thoroughly taught rhetoric, which he denned as 

 the 'science of pel-suasion,' as a technical method 

 and discipline. His most celebrated pupils were 

 Hyperides, Speusippus, and Isoeus. The great De- 

 mosthenes was a pupil of the last. His opponent 

 his co 



and his contemporaries Hyperides, 

 Lycurgus, and Dinarchus complete the Ten. 

 Anaximenes of Lampsacus composed the oldest 

 extant manual of rhetoric, but the great classical 

 work on this subject is the analytical masterpiece 

 of Aristotle. According to him its function is not 

 to persuade, but to discover the available means of 

 persuasion in any subject. He regards it as the 

 counterpart of logic, and arranges its uses as ( 1 ) 

 the means by which truth and justice assert their 

 superiority to falsehood and injustice ; (2) the only 

 method of persuasion suitable to popular audiences ; 

 (3) a means of seeing both sides of a case and of 

 discerning the weakness of an adversary's argu- 

 ment; (4) as a means of self-defence. The means 

 of persuasion he groups in two classes : ( 1 ) the 

 inartificial proofs, such as statements of witnesses, 

 contracts, and the like; (2) the artificial proofs, 

 whether these are (a) logical, demonstration or 

 seeming demonstration by argument; (b) ethical, 

 when the speaker induces confidence by the weight 

 of his own character; or (c) emotional, when he 

 works persuasively on the feelings of his hearers. 



Of these artificial proofs, first comes the logical, 

 and this depends on the eiithymeme, 'a syllogism 

 from probabilities ' and signs ; next is the example. 

 Of the materials of enthymemes, the topics or 

 commonplaces of rhetoric, Aristotle distinguishes 

 between the common, general heads applicable to 

 all subjects as to their possibility or impossibility, 

 and the special, those drawn from special arts or 

 faculties. 



He divides the three provinces of rhetoric thus : 

 (1) Deliberative rhetoric, concerned with exhorta- 

 tion or dissuasion, and future time, its ends expedi- 

 ency and inexpediency ; (2) Forensic rhetoric, con- 

 cerned with accusation or defence, and with time 

 past, its ends justice and injustice; (3) Epuleictic 

 rhetoric, concerned with eulogy or censure, and 

 usually with time present, its ends being honour 

 and disgrace, or nobleness and shamefulness. In 

 his first two books Aristotle deals with invention, 

 the discovery of means of persuasion ; in the third, 

 with expression and arrangement; and he begins 

 the subject by discuasing the art of declamation 

 or delivery. Under verbal expressions he discusses 

 the use of metaphor, simile, proverbs, rhythm, and 

 variety of styles, as the literary and controversial, 

 whether the political or the forensic. 



Aristotle's method dominated the Peripatetic 

 school, but later began to l>e modified by the florid 

 influence of Asia, the originator of which was 

 Hegesias of Magnesia. The school of Rhodes 

 followed more closely Attic models, and gained 

 great fame through its conspicuous leaders Apol- 

 lomus and Molon (c. 100-50 B.C.). Hermagoras of 

 Temnos (c. 120 B.C. ) composed an elaborate system 

 which long retained its influence. Later rhetoricians 

 were Dionysius of Halicarnassuo, Longinus, Her- 

 mogenes, Apsines, Menander, Theon, and Aph- 

 tho::ius. Among the earliest Koman orators were 



Appius Claudius Cascus (c. 300 B.C.), Cato the 

 Censor, Ser. Sulpicius Galba, Caius Gracchus, 

 Marcus Antonius, and Lucius Licinius Crassus. 

 The instructors in formal rhetoric were Greek, 

 and the great masters of theoretical and practical 

 rhetoric alike, Cicero and Quintilian, were both 

 formed by Greek models. The former contributed 

 to a discussion of its theories no less than three 

 treatises, De Oratore, the Brutus, and the Orator ; 

 the latter's famous Institutio Oratorio, still retains 

 its value. Quintilian strove hard to reform the 

 taste of the time, which had become Asiatic 

 through exclusive attention to the form and per- 

 petual exercises in the schools on imaginary sub- 

 jects the suasorice and controversies of the elder 

 Seneca. The Dialogus de Oratoribus, long ascribed 

 to Tacitus, was another protest against modern 

 fashion. The younger Pliny's Panegyric long re- 

 mained a model for later orators. During the 

 first four centuries of the empire rhetoric con- 

 tinued to be taught by ' sophists ' at Athens, 

 Smyrna, Rhodes, Tarsus, Antioch, Alexandria, 

 and Massilia. These were in. most esteem under 

 Hadrian, the Antonines, and Marcus Aurelius 

 among the most celebrated were Theodotus, 

 Polemon, and Adrian of Tyre. Throughout the 

 middle ages rhetoric formed one of the subjects of 

 the trivium; its leading authorities were Marti- 

 anus Capella, Cassiodorus, and Isidorus. The 

 subject re-awoke with the revival of learning, and 

 was taught regularly in the universities, the pre- 

 scril>ed public exercises and disputations keeping 

 it long alive ; but in later generations it has con- 

 stantly languished, in spite of more or less laborious 

 or effective attempts to fan it into life by the sen- 

 tentious Blair, the solid Campbell, and the saga- 

 cious \Vhately. In America, however, consider- 

 able attention is paid to it as a branch of general 

 education. 



See Aristotle's Rhetoric, with notes by E. M. Cope 

 and J. E. Sandys (3 vols. 1877), the Introduction and 

 Analysis by E. M. Cope (1867), and Translation by J. E. 

 C. Welldon (1886); C. Ritter, Die Quintilianische De- 

 ctamationen (1881); E, Volkmann, Die Rhetorik d. 

 (Irlechen u. RSnier (1872); Book iv. of St Augustine's 

 treatise On Christian Doctrine; and J. Bascom's Philo- 

 sophy of Rhetoric (New York, new ed. 1885). For the 

 practical art of Rhetoric or Oratory, see M. Bautin, 

 Art of Extempore Speaking (1858) ; the Abb<S M. Dclau- 

 inosne, Art of Oratory : system of Delsarte, trans. F. A. 

 Shaw (Albany, 1882) ; Professor J. H. M'llvaine, Elocu- 

 tion : the Sources and Elements of its Power (1870); 

 V. A. Pinkley, The Etientialx of Elocution and Oratory 

 (Cincinnati, 1888); C. J. Plumptre, Lectures on Elocu- 

 tion (18G9); G. L. Raymond, The Orator's Manual: 

 Vocal Culture, Emphasis, and Gesture (Chicago, 1879); 

 and C. W. Bardeen, Rhetoric (New York, 1884). 



Rheumatism (from the Gr. rheuma, 'a flux') 

 is a term which has been, and still is, rather 

 vaguely and extensively used in the nomenclature 

 of disease. But there is one very definite affection 

 to which it is always applied ; after this has been 

 discussed the other senses in which it is used will 

 be considered. 



Acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever is indicated 

 by general febrile symptoms, with redness, heat, 

 swelling, and usually very intense pain, in and 

 around one or more (generally several, either simul- 

 taneously or in succession ) of the larger joints, and 

 the disease shows a tendency to shift from joint 

 to joint or to certain internal serous membranes, 

 especially the pericardium and the endocardium ; 

 rheumatism being the most common origin of peri- 

 carditis, as has been already shown in the article 

 on that disease. The pulse is strong and full, 

 there is headache, but seldom delirium, unless in 

 very severe cases ; the tongue is covered with a 

 creamy thick fur, the tip and edges being red ; the 

 urine is turbid, and abnormally acid ; and the skin 



