SCHAFFHAUSEN 



SCHARWENKA 



203 



lectured at Andover, Hartford, and New York. 

 In 1869 he was called to be professor in the 

 Union Theological Seminary, New York, and 

 lectured there successively on Christian Sym- 

 bolics, Hebrew, and Sacred Literature. One of 

 the founders of the American branch of the Evan- 

 gelical Alliance, he went as a delegate to its 

 General Conferences at Basel in 1879 and Copen- 

 hagen in 1884. He attended as delegate also 

 the meetings in London in 1875, out of which 

 grew the Alliance of the Reformed Churches, the 

 first General Council of which met at Edinburgh 

 in 1877, the second at Philadelphia in 1880. He 

 was president of the American Old Testament 

 Revision Committee. He died 20th October 1893. 



Of his many books the most important are a History 

 of the Christian Chunk, in its enlarged form (12 vols. 

 in the Edinburgh edition ; 18X2 -IH) ; The Creeds of 

 Christendom ( 3 vols. 1877 ) ; The Person of Chritt ( 1865 ) ; 

 a Bible Dictionary ( Phila. 1880); Popular Commentary 

 on the Ufa Testament, to which he himself contributed 

 ' Matthew ' and ' Galatians ' ( 4 vols. 1878-83) ; and an en- 

 larged edition of Lange's Commentary on the Old and New 

 Testaments (25 vols. 1864-80). Besides these he edited 

 the 'Philosophical and Theological Library,' including 

 TJeberweg's Mis', of Philoi., Van Oosteraee'g Christian 

 Dogmatics, Ac. ; The Religious Encyclopedia, based on 

 He'rzog (3 vols. 1S84), and (with Her. S. M. Jackson) the 

 supplementary Encyclapmlia of Living Divines ( 1887 ) ; 

 and 'A Select Library of the Nioene and Post-Nicene 

 Fathers' (25 vola. New York, 1st series, 3 vola. 1886-89; 

 2d series, voU. i. and ii. 1890-91 ). 



SrhalTliausen, the most northern canton of 

 Switzerland, is Imunded on all sides but the south 

 by the duchy of Baden. Area, 1 14 sq. m. ; pop. 

 ( 1870) 37,721 ; ( 1888) 37,876, of whom about 34,000 

 are Protestants. The chief river is the Rhine, 

 which forms the southern boundary, and within 

 the basin of which the canton is wholly included. 

 The surface is hilly, especially in the north and 

 east; of the many rich valleys that slope south- 

 ward to the Rhine that of the Klettgau is famous 

 for its fertility and for its wines. Agriculture is 

 the principal branch of industry ; grain, (mtatoes, 

 fruit-, hemp, and wine being the chief products. 

 The great council is the governing Ixxly ; it em- 

 braces one representative for every 500 citizens, 

 chosen for four years. The executive is in the 

 hands of a ministry of five persons chosen by the 

 people for four years. The actions of the govern- 

 ment are controlled by the optional referendum. 

 The canton is simply the territory belonging to the 

 town, which joined the Swiss confederation in 1501. 



SCHAFFHAUSEN, the capital of the above canton, 

 is beautifully situated on the right bank of the 

 Rhine, above the celebrated falls, 31 miles by rail 

 \VXVV. of Constance. Overlooking the town stands 

 the curious castle of Munoth (1564-90), and this 

 edifice, the cathedral (12th century), the Imthur- 

 neum (a concert and lecture hall), a library, and 

 a museum are the chief buildings. The town is 

 remarkable for the antique architecture of its 

 houses. There is a statue to the Swiss historian 

 Johannes von Muller, a native of the place. Pop. 

 19,320. The falls of Schaffhausen, about 3 miles 

 below the town, form the grandest waterfall in 

 the whole course of the Rhine (q.v.). They are 

 utilised for electric and other factories, which turn 

 out iron and other metals, arms, oil, Hour, lx;er, 

 spirits, soap, candles, wool, cotton, and agricultural 

 machines. 



Srhafllr, ALBERT EIIERIIARO FRIEDRICH, po- 



liticiil ''oiioniist of the historical or evolutionary 

 school, was lx>m 24th February 1831 at Niirtingen 

 in \Viirt>Miil'rg, studied theology at Tubingen, 

 and, after spending some time on the editorial staff 

 of a newspaper, became professor of Political Econ- 

 omy at Tubingen in 1861, and in 1868 at Vienna. 



He had sat in the Wurtemberg diet, and in 1871 

 was for a short time Austrian minister of com- 

 merce. In that year he returned to Stuttgart, 

 devoting himself to literary labours. His chief 

 works are Die Nationalokonomie ( 1861 ; 3d ed. 

 with a new title, Dan Gesellschaftliche System i/i-r 

 Menschlichen Wirttehaft, 1873), Kapitalisnuts iiml 

 Sozialitmiit (1870), Quintessenz aes Sozialismiis 

 (1874; 8th ed. 1885; Eng. trans. 1889), Grand- 

 siitze der Steuerpolitik ( 1880) besides the work 

 cited at POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



Schall, JOHANN ADAM VON, a Jesuit mission- 

 ary t<> China, was born at Cologne in 1591, entered 

 the Jesuit order in Rome in 1611, and was sent out 

 partly in consequence of his knowledge of mathe 

 matics and astronomy to China in 1622. His fame 

 as a scholar led to his being invited to the imperial 

 court at 1'ekin, where he was entrusted with the 

 reformation of the calendar and the direction of 

 the public mathematical school. The Emperor 

 Shun-che, the founder of the Manchu dynasty 

 (1644), showed him great honour and respect. 

 Through this favour Schall obtained an edict for 

 the building of Catholic churches and for the 

 liberty of Christian preaching throughout the 

 empire ; and in the space of fourteen years the 

 Jesuit missionaries are said to have made 100,000 

 converts. On the death of this emperor, however, 

 a change took place ; the edict was revoked, and 

 Schall was thrown into prison and sentenced to 

 death. He was afterwards liberated ; but he was 

 again imprisoned, and, at the end of a long incar- 

 ceration, died August 15, 1669. He had acquired a 

 perfect mastery of the Chinese language, in which 

 tie compiled numerous treatises upon scientific and 

 n'li^ioiis subjects. A large MS. collection of his 

 Chinese writings, amounting to 14 volumes in 4to, 

 is preserved in the Vatican Library. In Latin he 

 wrote a work On the History of the Jesuit Missions 

 in China (Vienna, 1655). 



See Hailly's Histoire QinfraU de la Chine, and Hue's 

 Lf Christianisme en Chine. 



Schamyl. See SHAMYL. 



Scharnhorst, GKRIIARD JOHANN DAVID VON, 

 the organiser of the Prussian army, was lx>rn on 

 12th November 1756, at Bordenau, the son of a 

 Hanoverian farmer. At twenty he entered the 

 army of Hanover, and he took part in the cam- 

 naig'ns in Flanders of the years 1793-95. In 1801 

 he transferred his services to Prussia and was 

 appointed director of the training-school for Prus- 

 sian officers. Five years later he was wounded at 

 Auerstadt and taken prisoner at Liibeck, but 

 released in time to be present at the battle of 

 Eylau. In 1807 he began the great work of his 

 life : he was put at the head of the commission 

 for reorganising the armies of Prussia. He 

 reformed the army, introduced the short-service 

 ( Kriimper) system, created a better spirit amongst 

 both officers and men, and so converted what Iiml 

 been a mercenary force into a national army. 1 1 

 was principally by means of this new wea|>on that 

 Germany was able to crush the great Napoleon at 

 Leipzig "six years later (1813). But before that 

 event took place Scharnhorst was dead ; he \\ as 

 wounded at Grossgiirschen on 2d May 1813, whilst 

 acting as chief of the staff of the Silesian army, 

 and died on 28th June at Prague. 



See Life by Lehmann (2 vols. Leip. 1886-87) and 

 Klippel (3 vols. Leip. 1869-71) the former rather an 

 account of his public work than a biography and the 

 Krinnemmjen of Von Boyen (1891). 



Sdiarwenka, XAVER, pianoforte player and 

 musical composer, was lxrn at Samter near Posen 

 on 6th. January 1850, and was trained as a musician 

 at Posen and Berlin. On the conclusion of his 

 studies he began to teach in Kulhik's music 



