SOUL 



SOUND 



conscious life (sometimes the animal soul) as 

 contrasted with the highest, nohlest, anil godlike 

 element. A like confusion obtains in other lan- 

 guages ; the German stele and geitt are opposed 

 nearly as life principle to mind, and as tin- emo- 

 tional to the intellectual and spiritual. The con- 

 fusion dates from the early times of Greek philo- 

 sophy. In general, psyche (usually translated 

 'soul ') is opposed to nous, ' intelligence,' and also, 

 especially in religious philosophy, to piteuma, 

 'spirit,' the divine element in man. Plato (q.v.) 

 divided the soul into (1) the rational, (2) the 

 spirited or irascible, and (3) the appetitiveelemente. 

 With Aristotle the psyche is practically the vital 

 principle in plants as well as animals. In Neo- 

 platonism (q.v. ; and see also PLOTINUS) the 

 psychical side of man was treated with disrespect 

 as' the part to be mortified. The doctrine of a 

 world -soul has its roots in early speculation (see 

 AXIMA MUNDI), and connects with some types of 

 Pantheism (q.v.); see also MICROCOSM. Opposing 

 views as to the origin of the individual soul, crea- 

 tioiii-.ni. and traducianism are explained in the 

 article dealing with the belief in Pre-existence 

 (q.v.). The Transmigration (q.v.) of the soul is 

 separately treated. See also the articles PSY- 

 CHOLOGY, PERSONALITY, IMMORTALITY, APPARI- 

 TIONS, SECOND SIGHT, HELL, ANIMISM, and those 

 on the great authors named at PHILOSOPHY. 



Siiul. See SEOUL. 



Souloiique. See HAYTI. 



Sinilt. NICOLAS-JEAN DE DIEU, Duke of Dal- 

 inat ia. and Marshal of France, was born the son of 

 a notary at Saint-Amans-la-Bostide, in the dept. of 

 Tarn, March 29, 1769. In 1785 he enlisted as a 

 private in the Itoyal Infantry regiment, and was 

 only sergeant after six years' service. Thereafter, 

 however, his rise was rapid ; in 1792 he became 

 adjutant-major, and his conduct at Fleurus gained 

 for him (October 1794) the brevet of general of 

 brigade. From 1794 to 1799 he was in constant 

 service on the eastern frontier and in Germany, 

 and in the retreat after the defeat of Stockach 

 (March -'">. 1799) it was his able handling of the 

 rear-guard alone that prevented the annihilation 

 of the French army. The new chief Massuna made 

 him general of division (April 1799), and owed 

 to his courage and capacity much of the glory of 

 his Swiss and Italian campaigns. In 1802 Sonlt 

 was appointed by Napoleon one of the four colonels 

 of the consular guards ; in 1804 a marshal of 

 France. He led the emperor's right wing in the 

 glorious campaign closed with the crowning victory 

 of Austcrlit/., which he decided by piercing the 

 Russian centre. He also did good service in the 

 Prussian campaign, and took an important 

 though not a prominent part in the Russian 

 campaign of I SIM; 7. and after the peace of Til-it 

 was created Duke of Dalmatia. Soult was next 

 placed at the head of the second corps in Spain, 

 pursued the retreating British, attacked them at 

 t'orunna, and, though repulsed, forced them to 

 evacuate the country and leave their Mores behind. 

 He then conquered Portugal, ami governed it till 

 the sudden arrival of \Vellc-lev m Coimhra made 

 liim retreat rapidly to Galicia. In Septeinlx-r 

 1809 he became commander-in-chief in Spain, 

 gained a brilliant victory at Ocafia ( 18th Novem- 

 ber), and at the commencement of the following 

 year overran and subdued Andalusia, continuing 

 to command in person the southern army. In 

 attempting to succour Bodajos, winch he hail cap- 

 tured and garrisoned ( March 1 1 ), ho was defeated 

 by Beresford at Albuera (May 16, 1811). After 

 the battle of Salamanca and the advance of the 

 British on Madrid, Soult, mortified at 1 1 le obstinacy 

 of Joseph Bonaparte and the rejection of his 



admirable plans for transferring the theatre of war 

 to Andalusia, demanded and obtained his recall ; 

 but Napoleon, as soon as the tiding* of Vittoria 

 reached him, sent him back to the command in 

 Spain, as the only captain capable of turning the 

 tide of ill-fortune, by brilliant tactics he neut- 

 ralised the consummate strategy of Wellington, 

 and reduced the seven months campaign to a 

 mere trial of strength, the defeats which he sus- 

 tained at Orthez and Toulouse being due to the 

 -nperiiirity of the British soldiers, not of their 

 general. With his usual suppleness of character, 

 lie Ix'came an ardent royalist after the abdication 

 of Napoleon ; but on the return of the latter from 

 Elba he threw over Louis XVIII. to become 

 major-general of the imperial army. After Water- 

 loo he rallied the ruins of the army at Laon, 

 and at the council of war (July 3) coincided 

 with Carnot as to the uselessness of further 

 resistance. He was banished and not recalled 

 till May 1819, but within a few years he was 

 restored' to all his former honours. In 1838 

 he was sent as ambassador to England to the 

 coronation of Victoria, and was received by Wel- 

 lington with warmth and by the nation with 

 enthusiasm. In 1845 he retired from active duty, 

 and was honoured with the appointment of 

 ' Marshal -general of France' a rank held before 

 him only by Turenne and Villars. He now retired 

 to Soulfl>erg, his chateau near his birthplace, where 

 he died, November 26, 1851. 



See Soult's Affmoiret, written in 1816 at Diisseldorf 

 ( 3 vols. 1854 ) ; also Napier's HMory of the Peninsular 

 War; Thiers's Hittoire de la Revolution ft de V Empire ; 

 Salle'a Vie Potitigue du ifarfehal Soult (1834); and 

 Combes, Hiitoire Anecdotique (1870). 



Sound, in ordinary language, is that which 

 .ippeaU to us through our organs of hearing. 

 Kxperience teaches ns that almost every sound 

 can be traced to a source outeide of us, and that 

 as a rule the sound is characteristic of the source 

 from which it comes. Different voices are easily 

 recognisable, and there is no difficulty in distin- 

 guishing a trumpet-call from a violin-note. Here 

 we have brought out the quality or timbre or 

 colour of a sound. Another very obvious charac- 

 teristic is the pitch of a sound. On it the whole 

 theory and practice of music is based. Even the 

 most unmusical ear can distinguish lielween adcep- 

 toned note and a shrill one, Between, for example, 

 the extreme notes on a piano or organ. Then 

 there is the question of the inti-n.tif // or loudness 

 of a sound. In terms of these three fundamental 

 characteristics all differences of sound can be 

 expressed. It is the object of the science or theory 

 of sound to investigate the physical or mechanical 

 nature of whatever under suitable conditions can 

 be beard by the ear, and to express in terms of 

 motion of matter these three ever-present charac- 

 teristics quality, pitch, and intensity. 



Generally speaking, the air is the medium 

 through which soilnd travels towards us. What- 

 ever be the sound -producing Imdy, it must first 

 transfer something to the air, which in its turn con 

 veys a corresponding something to our ear. Within 

 us the sensation produced is a purely subjective 

 one, and must not be confused with the objective 

 cause existing outside of us. There is, however, 

 a distinct relation lielween the two: for when the 

 external conditions are physically identical, so are 

 the resulting sensations. The very fact that air 

 can transmit to us such a variety of sounds shows 

 that it is capable of responding more or less com- 

 pletely to the varied characteristics of the. sound- 

 producing body. The necessary condition for the 

 production of sound is that the body must, by its 

 own vibrations or in some other way, set the air 

 into vibration. Bells, tuning-forks, violin-strings, 



