776 



SUBAHDAR 



SUBMARINE NAVIGATION 



Valladolid, Rome, Alcala, Salamanca, and Coini- 

 bra. His theology wax it modification of that of 

 Molina (q.v.); he held that in the case of tin- 

 elect there is a peculiar grace granted, specially 

 a<lapted to their several individual natures. In 

 formal scholastic philosophy he steered a middle 

 course tietween realism and nominalism. The 

 most notable of his books were what may be 

 termed the earliest foreshadowing of the modern 

 doctrine of international law ( Trartatua de Legi- 

 IIH.I nc Deo Legitlatore) and a treatise condemn- 

 ing the extravagant pretensions to kingship put 

 forward bv James I. of England. This latter 

 (Defcnsio Catholirce Fidei) was written in 1613 at 

 the command of the pope. Suarez died at Lisbon 

 on 25th September 1617. His works were published 

 in 23 vols. at Mainz and Lyons in 1630 et seq., and 

 in 29 vols. at Paris in 1859. There is a Life of him 

 by Deschamps ( Perpignan, 1671 ), and another by 

 Werner (2 vols. Ratlsbon, 1861). 



Sllballdar was, under the Mogul government, 

 the title of a governor of a province. It now 

 designates a native officer in the army in India, 

 holding a rank equivalent to that of captain, but 

 subordinate to the European officers. 



Sub'altcrn, in the Army, is an officer below 

 the rank of captain i.e. a lieutenant or sub-lieu- 

 tenant. 



Subiaco (anc. Sublaqueum), a city of Italy, 

 lies embosomed in hills beside the Teverone, 32 

 miles E. by N. from Rome, and was the cradle of 

 the Benedictine order and the place where the 

 printing-press was first set up in Italy (1464). 

 There are two monasteries dating from the 6th 

 century, one of which (Santa Scolastica) contains 

 a small but valuable library, whilst the other was 

 built near the cave in which St Benedict lived. 

 The city was greatly favoured by Pope Pius VI. : 

 he enlarged its castle (built 1068), erected a church, 

 &c. Pop. 6503. 



MI linf Vmlat ion. See LAND LAWS. 



Subject. See OBJECT. 



Suhlapsiirian. See PREDESTINATION. 



Siih-liriitriiaiit. See LIEUTENANT. 



Sublimation i* a chemical process similar to 

 distillation, but dim-ring from it in the nature of 

 the snlistances to which it is applied. While in 

 distillation liquids are converted by the agency of 

 heat into vapour, which is condensed in the liquid 

 form usually by the cooling action of water, in 

 sublimation solid )>oilies are reduced by heat to 

 the state of vapour, which reassnmes the solid form 

 on cooling. Sublimation is usually conducted in a 

 single vessel of gloss or iron, the product being 

 deposited in the upper part of it in a solid state, 

 while the impure residue remains at the bottom ; 

 but in the case of sulphur the vapour is condensed 

 on the walls of a large chamlicr. Iodine affords a 

 good example of sublimation. On gently heating 

 the lower part of a Florence (losk containing a little 

 of this substance a purple vapour rises, which 

 almost immediately condenses in small brilliant 

 dark purple crystals in the upper parts of the flask, 

 while any impurity that may l>e present remains at 

 the bottom. Amongst the substances obtained by 

 this process, and employed in the Pharmacopoeia, 

 are arsenions acid, benzole acid, corrosive sublimate, 

 and sublimed sulphur. 



Submarine Forests. See articles FOSSIL, 

 PEAT, and POSTGLACIAL AND RECENT SYSTEM. 



. Submarine Mines. See MINES (MILITARY). 



Submarine Navigation. When the Diving- 

 bell (q.v.) hod shown that air for respiration can lie 

 upplied to persons in adequately arranged vessels 

 under water, ingenious men began to speculate on 



the possibility of navigating closed ships or boat* 

 in similarly exceptional circumstances. The t'n-i 

 submarine lioat on record was constructed in the 

 liegiliiiing of the 17th century by a Dutchman 

 named Cornelius Drel>ell, or DreLelle. She \\a- 

 propelled by oars, and was tried in the Thames 

 hy order of James I. She carried twelve rowers, 

 besides passengers. This vessel is alluded to in 

 Robert Boyle's New Experiments, Physico-Meclutiii- 

 call, touching the Spring of the Air, &c. (Oxford, 

 1660). Pages 363-365 of this curious work contain 

 an account of Drebell's experiment, and state that 

 he accounted his chief secret to lie ' theconi|>osition 

 of a liquid that would speedily restore M the 

 troubled air such a proiiortion of vital parts as 

 would make it again for a good while tit for 

 respiration.' The composition of this liquid for 

 enabling the same air to be used again and again 

 was never made public. Bishop \Vilkins. who also 

 favoured some other whimsical projects, devoted a 

 whole chapter of his Mathcnuitirtill Miiyirk ( 1648) 

 to a dissertation 'Concerning the possibility of 

 framing an Ark for Submarine Navigation.' lie- 

 here recites the difficulties of the scheme, but evi- 

 dently considers them not insurmountable; and 

 afterwards he enlarges upon its advantages, in 

 privacy, security from pirate-, storms, ice, .Vc., in 

 naval warfare, philosophical experiments, dis- 

 coveries, &c. In 1774 an inventor named Day lost 

 his life in an experimental descent in Plymouth 

 Sound in a vessel of about 50 tons burden. One of 

 the most successful machines contrived for sub- 

 marine navigation was that of Busline!) of Connecti- 

 cut, which was projected in 1771, and completed in 

 1775. Bushnell s chief object appears to have been 

 the introduction of submarine warfare. Hi- vessel 

 was propelled by screws, somewhat resembling 

 those now in use for steam-vessels, and there was 

 sufficient air to last for half an hour. In 1800 

 Robert Fulton, also an American, while residing in 

 France constructed a submarine boat, of which he 

 made many trials, some of them at the expense of 

 the French government, on the Seine, at Brest, 

 and at Rouen. Compressed air was used for res- 

 piration, and he remained at a depth of 25 feet for 

 four hours, propelling the boat in any direction ; 

 he also successfully attached a torpedo containing 

 gunpowder to the bottom of an old vessel lying 

 in Brest harbour, and blew her up. The vessel 

 patented in 1859 by Mr Delaney of Chicago wan 

 egg-shaped in transverse section, and diminished 

 nearly to a point at each end. It had two iron 

 tanks in the interior ; one hod air pressed into it by 

 an air-pump ; the second contained water. The 

 engineer of the boat, by pumping water into or out 

 of the second tank through tlie action of the air in 

 the first, could raise or lower the boat to ditleient 

 de],(lis in the water. In 1863 the Confederates in 

 Charleston made use of a submarine boat against 

 the blockading Federal squadron. This l>oat, called 

 a ' David ' after her inventor, was built of boiler- 

 plates and propelled by hand by eight men at a 

 maximum speed of four knots; two side-rudders 

 were used for sinking and raising the boat when in 

 motion ; she was cigar-shaped, and when advancing 

 to attack her top was just on a level with the sur- 

 face of the water ; three trial trips were made, and 

 each time she sank and failed to rise, the crews 

 perishing before they could be rescued ; the fourth 

 trial, however, was successful, and passing out of 

 the harbour she succeeded in blowing up the ffovta- 

 tonic, but could not get clear, and was carried 

 down by the Ifowiatonic. Several of these 'Davids' 

 were afterwards constructed by the Confederates, 

 but none of them again succeeded in inflicting any 

 serious damage upon the Federal ships. 



For some years afterwards, although several 

 experiments were carried out in France and 



