77,- sm.MAKINK TKLKCUAI'HY 



SUBWAYS 



against the possible usefulness of these l>oats. 

 \Vhere they -ecm really to have achieved a great 

 success is when moving just Mow the surface of 

 tlie water with the optical glass, which is only 

 altout the thickness of a man s list, allowing above 

 the surface. In 1898-99 very successful experiments 

 were uuule with the liiixtm- Zn/i, named after the 

 maker. She sailetl, partly above and partly In-low 

 the surface, from Toulon to Hyeres and Marseilles, 

 discharged her torpedoes successfully, and made no 

 noise to betray her position. This vessel has quite 

 superseded the Gotioet and OymtUtt. Britain and 

 the United States have also experimented with this 

 species of craft, and in the latter country the Hol- 

 land type, named for its inventor, lias been adopted. 

 &ee also the article TmirKuo. 



Submarine Telegraphy. See TELEGRAPH, 

 and ATLANTIC Tu.i M.K u'H. 



Sult|Hi'iia. in English law practice, means the 

 writ or process by which the attendance of a party 

 or witness in a court of justice is compelled. It is 

 a writ in the Queen's name commanding him to 

 lay aside his business and all excuses, and attend 

 at the time and place indicated, under a penalty. 

 If the witness is required to produce a document 

 the writ is called a siibposna rluces tecum. If the 

 person summoned do not attend and has not a good 

 legal excuse, such as dangerous illness, he may be 

 Mii'il in an action of damages or committed to 

 prison. 



Subsidence. See UPHEAVAL. 



Subsidies, parliamentary grants to the crown, 

 levieil oil persons in the form of so much on the 

 pound for land or goods ; or grants of special sums 

 from customs duties (see CUSTOMS DUTIES, and 

 TAX). The term is used to denote money paid by 

 one state to another in order to procure a limited 

 succour of auxiliary troops, ships of war, or pro- 

 visions. Thus, in the time of the war with the 

 revolutionists of France and Napoleon I., Great 

 Britain furnished sulisidies to foreign powers to a 

 large extent in order to engage them to resist the 

 progress of the French. 



Substance i- a term which has played a great 

 part in philosophical and theological discus.-ion. 

 It occurs first in the Aristotelian enumeration of 

 categories, where uvula is in a manner opposed 

 to the other nine categories of attribution and 

 relation. This contrast is expressed in the correla- 

 ti'in ni the Latin terms substance and accident. 

 Substance is defined as that which exists per se, 

 whereas attributes or accidents exist in alio. The 

 substance, in other word-, i- regarded as an inde- 

 pendent existence, a permanent subject of which 

 i In: accidents are predicated, and to which they 

 In-long as its qualities or states. Individual 

 things were thus treated !> Aristotle and the 

 scholastics as existing /XT se, : they are, in the 

 Aristotelian phrase, 'the first substances.' To the 

 objection which readily occurs thai Cod alone is 

 in this ~snse substance i.e. truly self-subsistent 

 they replied by the distinction between // A.' 

 and ii m: It l In 1 world is not to lie resolved into 

 a flux of accidents, created substances must exist 

 per se ; lint Cud alone exists n ,sr or aWlutely. 

 The same distinction lietween created sulmtances 

 and Coil as the one absolutely independent sub- 

 stancereappears in Descartes, but is repudiated 

 by Spino/a, who tlm* reaches his completely pan- 

 tliei-ii<- duet tine of the iinira mi/tatuHtiii. In Knglish 



philosophy the aspect of snlistai made most pro 



mini-lit is that of an underlying ' substratum ' (the 

 Greek i'VOKiltufoo ) or Unknown 'support' of the 

 qualities we know. Ixx-kc, like Descartes, believed 

 in two classes of nulistances, material and spiritual : 

 but tin- in-native criticism of Berkeley was brought 

 to bear against the first class, while Hume directed 



the same Iwttery against the spiritual substance* 

 which the bishop had spared, and thus pulverised 

 the world into unsupported accidents. All our per- 

 ceptions, Hume declares, 'may exist separately, 

 and have no need of anything else to support their 

 existence.' The criticism, however, which is valid 

 against the peculiar form which the doctrine of 

 substance hail assumed in Locke ignores the really 

 indispensable character of the conception. The 

 notion of siilmtance as something over and above 

 the qualities an inaccessible somewhat, hidden 

 behind the qualities instead of In-ing revealed by 

 them is undoubtedly false. But a pure pheno- 

 menalism can yield no theory of knowing or oeing. 

 The world, as it has been said, is not a flight of 

 adjectives; qualities do not fly loose; they are 

 necessarily unified in a substance or subject. In 

 recent philosophy the misleading idea of a sub- 

 stratum reapi>ear8 in the Kantian theory of the 

 unknowable thing-in-itself, which in turn 'develops 

 into the characteristic doctrine of modern agnosti- 

 cism. 



Subways. The term subway has been most 

 generally applied to arched passages or small 

 tunnels under streets for the purpose of contain- 

 ing gas-pipes, water-pipes, and someti s sewer- 

 pipes, or at least drains for surface-water. Some 

 also contain telegraph-wires and pipes for tilt- 

 transmission of compressed air. They are made 

 of sufficient size to permit of workmen walking to 

 and fro in them to examine the pipes and to execute 

 repairs. It need hardly be said that in large towns 

 such subways are a great public benefit. They 

 save the necessity for breaking up streets to get at 

 the pipes for repairs, an operation which not only 

 obstructs the traffic, but prevents the roadways 

 and foot-pavements from l>eing kept in proi>er con- 

 dition. Paris has long hat! an extensive system of 

 subways for the purposes above noted. These are 

 built of stone, and are of various shapes, l>eing 

 circular, oval, or egg shaped, or with straight sides 

 and semicircular top. The lower portions of them 

 are stepped for footpaths, with a track for the 

 drain between these. A number of these subways 

 have been constructed in London in Southwark 

 Street, Queen Victoria Street, and the Thames 

 Embankment, for example. The subway under 

 the roadway of the Boulevard Sebastopol, one of 

 tne largest in Paris, is 16 feet wide and 11 feet 

 high ; that under the footway of the Thames 

 Embankment is 9 feet wide and 7 feet 3 incites 

 high. 



Another class of subways which has been exten- 

 sively constructed of late years both in Ittitain and 

 abroad comprises arched passages under railways 

 to enable passengers to pass from one side to 

 another of a station, or to communicate bet ween 

 two adjacent railway stations. In some cases 

 these are elaborate examples of underground 

 engineering, and when they are faced with glazed 

 bricks, as most of them are, they have a clean 

 and elegant appearance. 



The name subway was in general use during its 

 construction for the deep tunnel electric railway 

 lietween the City and Southwark, now called the 

 City and South London llailway, which was opened 

 in 1*890. Two separate tunnels were made fur this 

 line one for the up and another for the down 

 traffic. At the stations the passengers descend and 

 ascend by hydraulic lifts, unless they prefer to use 

 the stall-. A second underground electric railwax , 

 the City and Waterloo, 1J miles, was ojiem-d in |s:i's, 

 and another from Waterloo to I taker Street was 

 making in 1899. The obvious advantage, of having 

 so much of the local passenger traffic withdrawn 

 from the crowded streets promises to develop this 

 method of underground railways in London and 

 other busy cities. See TUN MI.' 



