INLAND CONVEYANCE. 



consequence is a universal activity and prosperity, 

 and the creation of wealthy industrial centres. 



Railways were at first detached undertakings 

 between one large town and another, but now 

 many of the companies have for mutual advan- 

 tage amalgamated in groups ; and in a number of 

 cases, for economy in working, lesser lines have 

 been leased to companies of larger means. One 

 of the advantageous results of a union of railway 

 interests is, that passengers are able to procure 

 ' through-tickets ; ' but it is not less conspicuous 

 that the ' railway interest ' has become a formi- 

 dable power in the state, and is able to carry lines 

 almost anywhere, in disregard of every other 

 interest, public or private. Making every allow- 

 ance, therefore, for the high social value of the 

 railway system, it has certainly reached a point of 

 despotic overbearance that requires some species 

 of control more effectual than that which has 

 hitherto been embraced in the irregular action of 

 parliamentary committees or of the Board of 

 Trade. This question has lately been attracting 

 much attention. The government has tried in 

 various ways to ameliorate the evils arising from 

 its early apathy, and to control the excesses of 

 railway enterprise. One of these efforts was the 

 appointment of a Joint Committee of Lords and 

 Commons in 1872. This committee reported 

 among other things : ' That no means have yet 

 been devised by which competition can be main- 

 tained. Nor is there any reason to suppose that 

 the progress of combination will cease until Great 

 Britain is divided between a small number of 

 great companies.' So far is this the case that 

 four companies are virtually the owners of more 

 than 6000 miles of railway, of which above 2000 

 belong to the Great Western. 



An act passed in 1873 sanctions the appoint- 

 ment of a mixed tribunal composed of three 

 eminent men for the regulation and control of 

 the working of railways. 



The only alternative proposed to the present 

 system is the government purchase of railways. 

 An act of parliament was passed in 1844 for the 

 purpose of enabling government to purchase all 

 lines after they had respectively been 21 years in 

 existence, dating from the passing of the act. 

 This statute came into operation in 1865 ; but the 

 Joint Committee of 1872 report that they do not 

 think the terms of the 1844 act suited to the 

 present condition of railway property, or ever 

 likely to be adopted by parliament. The Com- 

 mittee are right so far, nothing having since been 

 done in this direction ; and it may be regarded as 

 practically abandoned. 



There is much to be said on both sides of this 

 question ; most of the arguments advanced pro 

 and con. may be found in articles respectively in 

 the Quarterly Review and British Quarterly 

 Review, April 1873. 



CONSTRUCTION. By far the greater number of 

 railways in the United Kingdom consist of two 

 lines of rails an /-line conducting towards, and 

 a down-line leading from, the metropolis or prin- 

 cipal centre of traffic. Single lines, with places 

 where trains may pass each other, are mostly of 

 recent construction, and have received their chief 

 development in Scotland. On some of the main 

 lines to London, it has been found necessary to 

 add a third, and in some cases a fourth line to 

 accommodate the enormously increased traffic. 



[Whether double or single, all the lines are 

 enclosed by fences, walls, ditches, &c. 



Stations. At the chief terminus there is a 

 group of buildings for offices, workshops, sheds for 

 locomotives, &c. Within late years, the terminal 

 stations at the larger towns have assumed vast 

 proportions, and in them comfortable waiting and 

 refreshment rooms are provided. In many cases, 

 also, hotels on a very large scale have been erected 

 as part of the buildings at the termini. 



Signals. The signalling arrangements form art 

 important part of railway construction. The 

 most common form of signal is the semaphore 

 and at night, coloured lights. A red light sig- 

 nifies danger; a green, caution ; and a plain light, 

 that the line is clear. Much care is given to th_> 

 arrangement and construction of crossings, junc- 

 tions, &c. with their numerous switches, or movable 

 rails, used for changing the direction of a train 

 from one line to another. The switches are gener- 

 ally worked directly from the signal-stations, and 

 are so arranged that their points shall not face 

 towards the advancing traffic. Numerous acci- 

 dents have been caused by ' facing points.' Many 

 improvements have been lately introduced in 

 signalling, crossings, &c. all with a view to- 

 increased safety. The 'block' system has been 

 adopted by the principal railway companies, par- 

 ticularly in the neighbourhood of busy centres of 

 traffic. Under this system each signal-station is 

 in direct telegraphic communication with the 

 nearest signal-stations, both up and down the line, 

 and a train is not allowed to pass any signal- 

 station until the train immediately preceding it has 

 started from the next station in advance. Thus 

 the driver may push on without hesitation from 

 point to point ; and thereby the traffic is expedited, 

 and at the same time safety increased. The 

 system of interlocking has also been extensively 

 introduced. Under this system, the pointsman 

 can only lower one signal namely, that which 

 corresponds to the line which, from the position of 

 the switches, is clear; and before he can alter the 

 position of the switches, he is compelled to return 

 this signal to ' danger.' 



The construction of a railway is the business 

 of contractors, who execute the works by estimate, 

 according to the plans and specifications of the 

 engineer. A railway contractor is a capitalist, 

 with a practical knowledge of embanking, tunnell- 

 ing, erecting bridges, &c. He possesses a stock 

 of the various necessary apparatus, light rails, 

 tools, &c. ; including horses, wagons, and one or 

 more locomotives for dragging materials. He 

 has subordinates called time-keepers, foremen, 

 gangers, and under-gangers, placed over detach- 

 ments of operatives. These operatives are a 

 remarkable class of men. Originally from 

 Lincolnshire and Lancashire, they are popularly 

 known as navvies (contracted from ' navigators '), 

 from having been engaged in excavating navigable 

 canals. Navvies sometimes labour in bands, 

 called butty-gangs, by piece-work, and are known 

 to draw large sums, but more generally they are 

 employed at days' wages. 



Curves and Gradients. Engineers endeavour 

 to render their lines as level and straight as 

 possible, but circumstances often necessitate the 

 use of considerable curves and gradients. As a 

 general rule there are few curves of less than 

 three-eighths of a mile, or 30 chains' radius ; when 



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