VIII AND OTHER COUNTRIES 163 



As for Germany, and still more Russia, the peasant pro- 

 prietor of to-day is of too young a growth to furnish any 

 valuable evidence. It should, however, be remembered 

 that in all these countries serfdom existed till comparatively 

 late : in Prussia till the reforms of Stein and Hardenberg 

 in 1807-11, which were not finally completed till 1850 ; l 

 in other parts of Germany, and in Austria between 1817- 

 48; while in Russia the emancipation of the serfs was 

 not completed till 1861, and the whole question is com- 

 plicated by the influence of that strange survival, the 

 Russian Mir. 



It is true that in parts of Germany there are a good 



1 Cf. Cobden Club Essays : Germany : By the legislation of 1807 

 (1) villeinage was abolished. (2) The old distinctions between noble, 

 burgher, and peasant land was abolished, and all such lands could be 

 acquired by any person, whatever his estate. (Some restrictions on 

 this right were abolished in 1811.) By the legislation of 1811 the 

 dual ownei'ship of land between lord and peasant was done away 

 with. (1) Peasants holding by hereditary right were to own their 

 lands free of all dues or services, but to surrender one-third of their 

 land to the lord if the holding was above fifty morgen (morgen = two- 

 thirds of an acre), if less, to pay a corn rent. For his rights on the 

 waste and for his house and farm-buildings he was still to pay services, 

 which are fixed, at harvest and other exceptional times. (2) Peasants 

 holding at will for life or term of years were to surrender one half of 

 their holding, and enjoy the rest free of all services and dues. (In 

 1816-36 this legislation was confined to estates of twenty-five morgen or 

 more.) (_3) One-third of the commonable fields was freed of common 

 rights of pasturage. In 1850, all services and dues which had not 

 been commuted were to be redeemed by payment of a capital sum, or 

 by a rent-charge for a fixed number of years. 



In Russia : By law of 1861 (1) the proprietor was to hand over 

 to the Mir a certain proportion of the land (the amount depending on 

 local circumstances or agreement). (2) For land thus handed over 

 services or rent were to be paid. (3) At the end of nine years, these 

 services or rents could be escaped by peasants surrendering part of 

 their land to the proprietor, or, before expiration of the nine years, by 

 purchase of part. (4) Any peasant to be allowed to buy his share in 

 the village land and free himself from the Mir at a price fixed by law. 

 Cf. Cobden Club Essays: Russia. Khovaleski, Customs and Laws of 

 Russia, p. 209. 



