78 



and the manner in which it is paid 



from the revenue of others, 46 

 Payment of those who produce mental 



enjoyments, ib. 

 Payment of those who take care of 



the persons, not the wealth of men, 



ib. 



ChapterThird OfTerritorialWealth, 



page 46 



Importance of the wealth arising from 

 land, and of the class who create 

 tliis wealth, ib. 



Division of the fruits of the earth de- 

 stined to compensate for the fixed 

 capital, the circulating capital, 

 and the labour which has produc- 

 ed them, 47 



The net produce belongs only to a sin- 

 gle class, the raw produce is di- 

 vided among all classes, and pro- 

 perly constitutes the national in- 

 terest, ib. 



Sometimes a superabundant population 

 submits to work for such low 

 wages, that the augmentation of 

 raw pi educe ceases to be a sign of 

 prosperity, ib. 



The cultivation of territorial wealth is 

 carried on by permanent contracts, 

 ib. 



State of barbarism when men dare not 

 trust their labour to the ground, 

 ib. 



First investment entrusted by the agri- 

 culturist to the ground, not ex- 

 tending beyond a year, ib. 



Absolute confidence of civilized nations, 

 among whom land is regarded as 

 the surest of all kinds of wealth ; 

 permanent labours to increase its 

 value, ib. 



It is not the opulence of a few propri- 

 etors, but the comfort of all the 

 agricultural class, that indicates 

 the best system of rural cultiva- 

 tion, ib. 



Patriarchal cultivation by the labour 

 of the proprietor and of his fami- 

 ly, ib. 



Condition of the slaves tolerable when 

 they laboured along with their 

 masters, 48 



Servile cultivation, by the labours of 

 slaves and inspectors, ib. 



Absolute change in the condition of 

 slaves, wheu their masters ceased 

 to work, ib. 



Depopulation and decline of agricul- 

 ture in Italy, by the servile culti- 

 vation, ib. 



Servile cultivation of the colonies of 

 the Mexican Gulf, ib. 



The invasions of the Barbarians bet- 

 tered the condition of the peasants, 

 whom the landlord now required 

 for soldiers, ib. 



Three systems invented during the 

 middle ages for exalting the con- 

 dition of slaves and cultivators, 

 cultivation for half produce, cor- 

 vees and capitation, ib. 



Cultivation for half produce, or, culti- 

 vation by metayers, one of the 

 happiest inventions of the middle 

 ages, 49 



Great progress of agriculture among 

 the metayers, ib. 



If the metayer is not protected by the 

 legislature, proprietors exercising 

 a kind of monopoly will reduce 



INDEX. 



the cultivator to be satisfied with 

 less than his half, 49 



Cultivation by corvecs much less ad- 

 vantageous for the peasant and 

 for his lord, ib. 



It is also founded upon an equal divi- 

 sion of labour and of land, but the 

 peasant takes no interest in the 

 labour which he performs, ib. 



The cultivator protected by law in 

 Austria, and the corvees changed 

 into an invariable service, SO 



Stability of the Austrian monarchy at- 

 tributed to the happy condition of 

 the peasantry, ib. 



Cultivation by capitation. It indicates 

 a country half waste, where the 

 hands are not sufficient to cultivate 

 the ground, ib. 



Capitation most frequently joined to 

 servitude of the soil, ib. 



In Russia, where the rate of capitation 

 has not been changed, serfs have 

 enriched themselves, ib. 



Cultivation by farm-lease. It is im- 

 possible immediately after the abo- 

 lition of slavery, for it supposes a 

 class of agriculturists already rich, 

 ib. 



Change in the condition of farmers, 

 who from simple labourers, became 

 speculators in agriculture, ib. 



Formation of a new class of cultivators 

 who labour for the farmers, 51 



Wretched condition of these hinds, ib. 



The most numerous and the most im- 

 portant class of the population is 

 thus reduced to the most degraded 

 state, ib. 



Political convulsions from this bad or- 

 ganization of society ; state of Ire- 

 land, ib. 



Advantages and disadvantages of farm- 

 leases for the proprietor, ib. 



Farm-leases tend to save manual la- 

 bour and diminish population, ib. 



Progress of the class of peasants in 

 France ; particular contracts, 52 



Cultivation by emphyteutic lease. Its 

 great advantages in encouraging 

 an improved cultivation, ib. 



But the emphyteusis which suits the 

 cultivator, and the country itself, 

 does not suit the proprietor, ib. 



The national interest sometimes re- 

 quires that property shall pass 

 into hands likely to make a better 

 use of it, ib. 



It is essentially necessary that the pro- 

 prietors of land possess also move- 

 able capital, ib. 



Almost all legislators have discouraged 

 cultivators from making perma- 

 nent advances on land, ib. 



It concerns the nation that every pro- 

 prietor who ruins himself shall sell 

 his land rather than exhaust it ; 

 but means have been adopted to 

 prevent him, 53 



The still more fatal laws of entail in- 

 vented through family pride, ib. 



Entail gives the proprietor an in- 

 terest contrary to that of his own 

 property, and to that of the pub- 

 lic, ib. 



Chapter Fourth. Of Commercial 



Wealth, page 53 

 Commercial wealth comprehends every 



thing which becomes the object of 



exchange to satisfy the wants of 

 men, 53 



The isolated man laboured for his own 

 wants ; in society each individual 

 labours for the wants of all, 54 



Not knowing these wants precisely, the 

 proportion between his labour and 

 the demand for that labour might 

 be ill understood, ib. 



Knowledge of the market, or of the 

 number, the tastes, the expendi- 

 ture, and the revenues of con- 

 sumers, ought to regulate the la- 

 bour of the producer, ib. 



A comparison of the purchaser's price 

 with the buyer's price, is suffi- 

 cient to guide the latter, and to 

 make him know the market, ib. 



The producer's price comprehends the 

 remuneration of all his labours, 

 and the interest of the capitals 

 which have contributed to the pro- 

 duction, ib. 



Although the producer cannot obtain 

 this price, he often finds it diffi- 

 cult to diminish his production, 

 ib. 



The buyer's price established by com - 

 petition, on the least expensive 

 mode of supplying the thing re- 

 quired, ib. 



Production being limited by consump- 

 tion, the first object of the pro- 

 ducer is to extend his sale, that 

 he may augment his labour, ib. 



He succeeds in this, 1st, by a saving 

 in his labour, which enables him 

 to undersell his brethren, 55 



There is not always a national advan- 

 tage in underselling even foreign- 

 ers, ib. 



2dly, By lowering the price, and so 

 offering the thing produced to a 

 new class of consumers, ib. 



3dly, By the increase of population 

 and national wealth, which afford 

 new consumers at the same price, 

 ib. 



But it is the diffusion of wealth, not 

 its accumulation, which augments 

 consumption, ib. 



The accumulation of capitals which 

 increases great manufactures, ex- 

 cludes their products from con- 

 sumption, ib. 



4thly, By the progress of civilization, 

 comfort, security, and happiness 

 among barbarous nations, ib. 



The profit of trade increases, either 

 by producing cheaper, or by selling 

 dearer, ib. 



Manufacturers produce cheaper, 1st, 

 by the low price of workmanship, 

 which, if it is not an effect of su- 

 periority in climate, is a national 

 calamity, 56 



2dly, By the low price of interest, and 

 the abundance of capitals, em- 

 ployed as income by the capitalist, 

 ib. 



Sdly, By the increasing division of la- 

 bour, which makes each opera- 

 tion be performed more easily and 

 more rapidly, ib. 



But this advantage is often purchased 

 at the expence of the intelligence 

 and morality of the human spe- 

 cies, ib. 



4thly, By the employment of ma- 

 chines in place of men, which is 

 not desirable, except when the 



men discharged can find a new 

 employment, 56 



5thly, By the application of science to 

 the arts, which furnishes new raw 

 materials, and produces better 

 work, ib. 



6thly, By the advantages of climate, 

 soil, exposure, national character 

 peculiar to the different countries 

 of the earth, ib. 



Governments have likewise attempted 

 to assist commerce, by giving it th 

 means of producing cheap and 

 selling dear, ib. 



Artificial means of producing cheap, 

 1st, prohibition to export the raw 

 material; sacrifice of one class of 

 producers to another, 57 



2dly, Fixation or suppression of in- 

 terest; sacrifice of capitalists, ib. 



Sdly, Enacting laws to lower the wages 

 of labour ; sacrifice of the working 

 class, ib. 



Expedients invented by governments 

 to assist the merchant in selling 

 dear, ib. 



1st, Regulations of apprenticeships, 

 and corporations, which give a 

 monopoly to merchants against 

 consumers, and against such as 

 wish to labour, ib. 



2dly, Monopolies granted to trading 

 companies, ib. 



Sdly, Monopoly of the interior market 

 given to the national producers bj 

 the imposition of heavy duties, 

 ib. 



Prodigious encouragement which it 

 gives to nascent manufactures, 58 



It is unavailing, or even hurtful, to 

 manufactures destined for expor- 

 tation, ib. 



Emulation of all governments to esta- 

 blish manufactures everywhere, 

 ib. 



Formation of new manufactures no 

 longer determined by the wants of 

 the market, ib. 



Excess of production has caused an 

 immense loss of capital in trade, 

 ib. 



It has produced a manufacturing po- 

 pulation which can no longer 

 find employment, ib. 



Hence govemments, contrary to the 

 spirit of trade, have endeavoured 

 to isolate themselves, and be suffi- 

 cient for themselves, 59 



Real advantages of a near trade for the 

 rapid circulation of capital, ib. 



But a neighbouring foreigner is better 

 than a distant countryman, ib. 



The system of the isolation of nations 

 is a barbarous system, ib. 



4thly, Monopoly obtained in a foreign 

 country by a treaty of commerce, 

 ib. 



5thly, Monopoly obtained in a new 

 country by the foundation of a 

 colony, ib. 



Cthly, JJounties and restitution of 

 taxes upon exportation, ib. 



Moral encouragement which govern- 

 ment may give to trade, 60 



Mercantile capital may be suddenly 

 augmented by all the savings of 

 the rich, ib. 



The torpor of a nation can sometimes 

 be thrown off only by example, ib. 



Good government is the most effect- 

 ual encouragement to trade, ib. 



