I M i. 



JOSEPHTJS, FLAVIUa 



many of which re printed, ire dutinguiahed for their excellent MUM 

 and the originality at onoe of thought and style. In 1751 he obuiued 

 the living of St. DuniUn-in-the-Eait. Hi* other church preferment 

 WM the living of Eutwell lo Krnt, presented to him by the Earl of 

 Winchtbea. Thi* wa* for the greater part of hi* life all the preferment 

 he enjoyed ; but in 1762, when hi* friend Dr. Osbaldeston became 

 biabop of London, Jurtiu was appointed hia domestic chaplain, and 

 WM preeentrd with a prebend in the church of St. Paul and the living 

 of Kensington. To these was soon added the archdeaconry of London. 

 He t'urd bis midenoe at Kensington, where he died in 1770, and was 

 boned in the new churchyard of that place. 



The critical writiuga of Dr. Jortin aro greatly admired by all who 

 ban a taste for curious literature. It is not merely on account of the 

 learning which is displayed in them, and the use which is made of 

 obscurer author*, but there is a terseness in the expression, and a 

 light playful satire in the thoughts, which render them very enter- 

 taining. The first work of this class was published in 1731, and is 

 entitled ' Miscellaneous Observations on Authors, ancient and modern.' 

 In 1751 the first volume appeared of his ' Remarks upon Ecclesiastical 

 History,' and in 1758 he published his 'Life of Erasmus.' 

 JOSfc or JOSEPH I., King of Portugal. [PORTUGAL, in Guoo. Div.] 

 JOSEPH I., of the house of Austria, Emperor of Germany, succeeded 

 his father Leopold I. in 1705. He carried on tbo war called that of 

 the Spanish Succession, which had begun under his father, against 

 Louis XIV. The allied armies under Eugene and Marlborough were 

 prosperous in his reign. The battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and 

 Mulplaquet, the deliverance of Turin by Prince Eugene, the surrender 

 of Naples to the Austrian*, and the permanent footing obtained by 

 the Archduke Charles in Spain, seemed to havo nearly decided the 

 question, when Joseph died of the small-pox in April 1711, leaving his 

 brother Charles, afterwards Charles VI., the last mole heir of the house 

 of Habsburg, to conclude the war. Joseph was a good prince; he 

 was learned and assiduous in the discharge of his duties, humane, and 

 though a devoted Roman Catholic, yet tolerant 



JOSEPH II., eldest son of Maria Theresa and of Francis of Lorraine, 

 was elected King of the Romans in 1764, and in the following year, on 

 the death of hia father, he became emperor. As long as his mother 

 lived he bad little real power, as Maria Theresa retained the adminis- 

 tration of her vast territories in her own hands ; but on her decease in 

 1780 he became possessed of all the hereditary Austrian dominions. 

 Joseph soon displayed considerable ambition mixed with much rest- 

 lessness ; he was however kept in check by France and by Frederick 

 of Prussia. After the death of Frederick in 1786, Joseph joined 

 Catharine of Russia in a war against Turkey, which his general Laudon 

 carried on with success, taking Belgrade and other fortresses in 1789. 

 But the threatening aspect of affairs in France and Brabant arrested 

 the progress of the Austrian armies, and Joseph himself died in 1790. 

 The character in which Joseph is chiefly viewed is that of a reformer 

 in many instances a wise one, but in others rash and inconsiderate. 

 He abolished all separate jurisdictions, and divided the Austrian 

 monarchy into thirteen governments subdivided into circles, all under 

 a uniform administration, civil and judicial. He abolished feudal 

 servitudes, and substituted a fixed tax in lieu of corvdes, taskworks, 

 tithes, hcrioU, Ac. He issued the edict of toleration, by which all 

 Christians of whatever denomination were declared equally citizens, 

 and equally eligible to nil offices and dignities. Wherever there was 

 a population of 3000 inhabitants, whether Protestants or Greeks, they 

 were allowed to build a church for themselves, provided they estab- 

 lished at the same time a permanent fund for the support of the 

 minister and relief of the poor. The Jews were allowed the exercise 

 of all trades and professions, with access to the public schools and 

 universities. He took away from the clergy the censorship of the 

 press, and gave it to a commission of literary men resident at Vienna. 

 He opened colleges and universities, enlarged those already existing, 

 endowed new professorships, and collected libraries. He encouraged 

 manufactories, but, according to the old system, he placed exorbitant 

 duties on foreign articles. He subjected the monastic fraternities to 

 diocesan jurisdiction, and he suppressed many convents ; but he did 

 it in a harsh manner, without regard to the necessities and feelings of 

 the older inmates, who were turned adrift into the world with only 

 small pensions, and in some cases even without them. He forbade 

 pilgrimages and processions, prohibited the pomp of funeral cer< 

 monies, declared marriage to be a purely civil contract, forbade all 

 papal bulls to be published throughout his dominions without the 

 permission of the government, abolished the privileges of the University 

 of Louvain, and established a new theological seminary in its place. 

 These innovations, in a country so strongly attached to its old institu- 

 tions and religion as the Belgian provinces were, led to on insurrection, 

 and ultimately to the separation of those fine territories from the 

 Austrian monarchy. His scheme of establishing the German as the 

 universal language throughout his dominions led to a revolt in Hungary, 

 which his more temperate successor Leopold had some difficulty in 

 pacifying. In short, Joseph, with all his liberality, was perfectly 

 despotic in carrying his mewures into effect, without regard to the 

 feelings, prejudice*, or interest* of individuals. 



JOSE'PHUS, FLA' VI US, the celebrated Jewish historian, was bom 

 at Jerusalem A.D. 37. Hi* family was one of very distinguished rank 

 by hi* mother's side he WM descended from the Asmonecan princes, 



and his father Matthias belonged to the chief sacerdotal family of the 

 irst of the twenty-four COUNTS. Joeephus was brought up at Jeru- 

 mlein with his brother Matthias; and, according to hi* own account, 

 le made such progress in learning that he was frequently consulted 

 at the age of fourteen concerning difficult points in the law. At the 

 age of sixteen he resolved to become acquainted with the opinion* of 

 Jie three principal Jewish sects, namely, those of the Pharisees, 

 Sudd news, and Essence. He accordingly studiel the doctrines of 

 each ; but having beard that a celebrated Essene of the name of Banug 

 ived in on ascetic manner in the desert, Joeephus joined him in hia 

 solitary mode of life, and pissed three years in his society. At the 

 age of nineteen he again returned to Jerusalem, and embraced the 

 opinions of the Pharisees. In his twenty-sixth year be sailed to Rome 

 with the view of obtaining the liberation of some priests of his 

 acquaintance, who bad been seised by Felix, procurator of Judna, 

 and sent as captives to Rome. He had the misfortune to be chip- 

 wrecked in the Adriatic; but upon arriving at Puteoli he became 

 acquainted with an actor of the name of Aliturius, through whose 

 means ho was introduced to Popproa, the wife of Nero, who procured 

 the liberation of the priests, and bestowed many presents upon 

 Josephus. 



On his return to Jerusalem, Josephus found the greater part of his 

 countrymen preparing for war against the Romans. Being strongly 

 opposed to this measure, he joined himself to that party which was 

 anxious for the preservation of peace. After the defeat of the Roman 

 gmeral Ceetius, and the massacre of the Jews in Syria and Alexandria, 

 all hope of peace appears to have been lost ; and Josephus accordingly 

 united himself to the war party. Being deputed, together with Joazar 

 and Judas, to defend the province of Galilee, ho made vigorous pre- 

 parations against the Romans, though his plans were constantly 

 thwarted, and his life frequently in danger from his personal and 

 political enemies. On the approach of Vespasian's army in the follow- 

 ing year, A.D. 67, Josephus retreated to Jotapata ; and after defending 

 the city for forty-seven days against the whole Roman army, he was 

 taken prisoner on the capture of the town : but instead of being put 

 to death, as was the fate of all his companions, he was received by 

 Vespasian with distinguished honour, in consequence of his pretending 

 to the character of a prophet, and artfully predicting that Vespasian 

 would shortly succeed Nero in the government of the Roman empire. 

 He was present with Titus at the siege of Jerusalem, and endeavoured 

 to prevail upon his countrymen to submit to the Romans. After 

 Vespasian succeeded to the purple, he was treated by Titus with still 

 greater honour than before ; but by the Jews he was regarded as a 

 renegade, and by the Roman soldiers was looked upon with suspicion. 

 On the taking of the city, Titus offered to grant him anything he 

 wished. He asked for the sacred books, and the lives of his brother 

 and fifty friends. He received a large estate in Judaea ; and upon going 

 to Rome was admitted to the privileges of a Roman citizen by Vespasian, 

 who also gave him an annual pension and apartments in his own house. 

 After the death of Vespasian, he continued to live in Rome in high 

 favour with Titus and Domition. The time of his death is uncertain ; 

 he was certainly alive at the latter end of the first, and probably at 

 the beginning of the second, century. 



The first work published by Josephus was the history of the ' Jewish 

 War ;' it was originally written in the Syro-Chaldaic language for tho 

 use of those Jews who lived beyond the Euphrates. He afterwards 

 translated it into Greek for the benefit of the learned Romans. The 

 'Jewish War ' consists of seven books, and gives an account of the 

 history of the Jews from tho taking of Jerusalem by Antiochus 

 Epiphanes to the destruction of the city by Titus. Many years after- 

 wards, in 93, Josephus published in Greek his great work on the 

 ' Antiquities of the Jews,' with the view of increasing the reputation 

 of his nation with the Romans, and of refuting the many calumnies in 

 circulation against the Jews, by giving a faithful account of their history 

 and opinions. This work commences, in the same manner as the book 

 of Genesis, with the creation of the world ; and it gives a consecutive 

 account of Jewish history from tbo birth of Abraham to the com- 

 mencement of the war with the Romans. The early part is taken 

 from the books of the Old Testament, with many additions and 

 explanations ; some of which were probably genuine Jewish traditions, 

 but the greater port appear to have been only added by the historian 

 in order to give more importance to his nation, and a greater air of 

 probability to the miraculous occurrences in Jewish history. The 

 ' Antiquities of the Jews ' consiste of twenty books, and was dedicated 

 to Epaphroditus, a philosopher at Home. 



Josephus also wrote ' Two Books against Apion,' in reply to those 

 Greeks who questioned the truth of tho early part of his work on the 

 ' Antiquities of the Jews.' He likewise published an account of his 

 own life in answer to Justus, who had written in Greek an account of 

 the Jewish war, in which he .attacked the character of Josephus. 



The best editions of Josephus are by Hudson, Oxf., 2 vols. folio, 

 1720; Havercamp, Aunt, 2 vols. folio; Oberthiir, Leip., 3 vols. 8vo, 

 1782-85; Richter, Leip., 6 vol*. 12mo, 1826-27; and Dindorf, Paris, 

 1845. The works of Josephus have been frequently translated into 

 most of the modern languages of Europe : the best translation in 

 French is by Gillet, Paris, 4 vols. 4to, 1756 ; that in Italian by 

 Angioliui, Verona, 4 vols. 4 to, 1779. There are several German trans- 

 lations : one by J. B. Ott, Zurich, 1736; another by J. F. Cotta, 



