LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHKLM. 



LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM. 



works, jut before hi* death, which happened Norember 10th, 1806. 

 Among hb writings an the tost to the Edifices de Paris, 1 ud the 

 ' tlmlrrie Antique,' nod to many of the architctiirl subjects in the 

 ' Annalr* du Masee ; ' alo the architectural portion of Cassas's 

 ' Voyage PHtoresqoe d'Ltrie,' and that of ' I'hrnicie ; ' and an octavo 

 volume to accompany Durand'i 'Parallele d' Edifice*.' Thi* lait was 

 nierrly the sketch of a more complete and detailed history of archi- 

 tecture, which, bad be lived to execute it a* be bad proposed, would 

 hare extended to thirty volume*. 



LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM, wa* born on the 3rd of 

 July 1646, at Leipzig, where his father (Kriedrich) wa* profeuor of 

 jurisprudence. Having loet his father at the age of lix yean, he wa* 

 placed at the eobool of St. Nicholas, in hi* native city, from which he 

 wa* removed in hi* fifteenth year to the univenity of the name place. 

 Although law wa* his principal (tudy, he combined the legal lesions 

 of the elder Tbomuiu* with tho*e of Kuhn in mathematics, and 

 applied at the aaine time with great diligence to philology, history, 

 and, in short, to every branch of knowledge. Of ancient writers, 

 Plato, Aristotle, and the Pythagorean* **m to have exercised the 

 greatest influence on bi* mental character, and hi* profound know- 

 ledge of their writing* has furnished many an element in his own 

 philosophy, while it luggetted a wish, a* bold as it wa* impracticable, 

 of reconciling their several systems and combining them into one 

 nnnsMrait whole. After further prosecuting his mathematical studies 

 at Jena under Krhard Weigel, Leibuitz returned to Leipzig, where ho 

 paaeed successively to the degrees of Bachelor and Master in 1'hilo- 

 opby. On the Utter occasion (1664) be read hi* treat Ue 'De Principio 

 Individuationis,' in which he took the ride of the nominalist* against 

 the realists. His pursuit* at this time were chiefly of a mathematical 

 and juristical character. In 1664 appeared the treatise ' Quaestiones 

 Philosophic*: ex Jure collect^,' which was followed in the next year 

 by the 'Doctrina Conditionum.' 



The treatise ' De Arte Combinatoria ' wa* published in 1666. This 

 important and remarkable work contained a new method of combining 

 numbers and ideas, and was intended to exhibit the scientific advan- 

 tages of a more extensive design, of which it was only a particular 

 application. Thi* general design, which is sketched in the ' Historia 

 et Commendatio Lingua) Characteristics Universal!* ' (' Posthumous 

 Works,' by Hasps', p. 535), was the invention of an alphabet of ideas, 

 to consist of the moet simple elements or characters of thought, by 

 which every poariblo combination of ideas might be expressed ; so 

 that by analysis or synthesis the proof or discovery of all truth might 

 be possible. Notwithstanding such early proofs of his genius and 

 talents, Leibniz was refused a dispensation of age which he had asked 

 for it Leipzig iu order to take the degree of Doctor of Laws, which 

 bowever be obtained at Altorf. His exercise on thin occasion was 

 published under the title ' De Casibus iu Jure Perplexis,' which was 

 everywhere received with approbation. Declining a professorship here 

 offered to him, in all probability from a distaste for a scholastic lift*, 

 be proceeded to Nurnberg, where he joined a society of adepts in the 

 pursuit of the philosopher's stone, and, being appointed secretary, 

 was selected to compile their moet famous works on Alchemy. For 

 such an occupation be is said to have proved his fitness by composing 

 a letter, requesting the honour of admission, so completely after the 

 style of the alchemist*, that it was unintelligible even to himself. 

 From these pursuit* be was removed by the Baron von Boineburg, 

 chancellor to the Elector of Mainz, who invited him to proceed to 

 Frankfurt in the capacity of councillor of state ami assessor of the 

 chamber of justice. He here composed the valuable and important 

 essay ' Nova Method us docendi discendique Juris, cum subjecto cata- 

 logo desideratorum.' At this time Leibnitz began to prosecute the 

 study of philosophy with greater energy, and to extend his fame to 

 foreign countries by the republication of the work of Nizolius, ' De 

 Tens Principii* et vera Ratione Philosophandi,' to which he contributed 

 many philosophical notes and treatises. To this date belong two 

 original compositions which are remarkable for their boldness of 

 views, and a* containing the germ of his later philosophical system. 

 Of these two works, the ' Theoria Motus Concreti ' was communicated 

 to the Royal Society of London, and the ' Theoria Motus Abstract! ' 

 to the Academy of Science* of Paris. The latter city he first visited 

 in 1672, iu company with the son of hi* patron, and there formed the 

 acquaintance of the most learned and distinguished men of the age 

 among others, of Malebranche, Casaini, and Huvghens, whose work on 

 the oecillation of the pendulum attracted Leibuitz to the pursuit of 

 the higher mathematics, Leibnitz next proceeded to London, where 

 be became personally acquainted with Newton, Oldenburg, Wallis, 

 Boyle, and others, with many of whom be had previously maintained 

 an active correspondence. Upon the death of the Elector of Mainz, 

 he received from the Duke of Brunswick Liineburg the appointment 

 of Hofrath and Royal Librarian, with permiarion however to travel at 

 pleasure. He accordingly visited London a second time, in order to 

 make known bis mathematical studies and to exhibit his arithmetical 

 machine. This machine, either an Improvement on that of Pascal or 

 an original invention, is described in the first volume of the ' Miscel 

 Unea Burolinensia,' and is -till preserved in the rniueum at Gottingnn. 

 From London Leibuitz returned to Hanover, where he was engaged in 

 arranging the library and iu the discovery and development of the 

 method of infinitesimal!!, which was 10 similar to the method of 



fluxions of Newton as to lead to a bitter dispute between the admirer* 

 of there great men, and ultimately between themselves, as to the 

 iriority of discovery. To decide this dispute the Royal Society of 

 Ixmdon, at the request of Leibnita, nominated a oommi<*ion, which 

 decided in favour of Newton. There is little doubt bowever that the 

 .wo methods were equally independent and original ; but the priority 

 of publication is in favour of Leibnitz. To this period belong also 

 :he important works of a mixed historicul and political nature, 

 Scriptores Rerum Brunavioensium,' and the ' Codex Juris Gentium 

 Diploinaticua,' the materials of which be bad collected during hi* 

 .ravels through France, 3uabu, Bavaria, and Austria, which he under- 

 took at the instance of Duke Ernest Augustus of Brunswick. In 

 1683 he joined Otto Mencko in publishing the ' Acta Eruditorum ' of 

 Leipzig, and from 1691 he was also a constant contributor to the 

 ' Journal des Savans,' in which many of his most important essays on 

 philosophy first appeared. To this period belong the composition of 

 ihe Monadologie ' and the 'Harrnonie Preo'tablie,' In 1702 Leibnitz 

 wa* appointed President of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, which 

 the Elector of Brandenburg, afterward* Frederick I. of Prussia, had 

 established at the instance of his queen, a princess of the house of 

 Brunswick, and by the advice of Leibuitz himself. In 1710 the 

 Theodicee ' was published, with a view to oppose the tendency of 

 the writings of Bayle ; and two years afterwards the ' Nouveaux 

 Kssais sur 1'Entendemont Humain,' in answer to the essay of Locke. 

 In the previous year Leibnitz formed the personal acquaintance of 

 Peter the Great, who, at Torgau, consulted him on the best means to 

 be adopted for the civilisation of Russia, and rewarded bis valuable 

 suggestions by the title and dignity of councillor of state aud a pension 

 of 1000 rubles. Shortly afterwards, at the instance of Prince Ulrich 

 of Brunswick, the emperor, Charles VI., elected him anlic councillor 

 and baron of the empire; and, in consequence, he visited Vienna, 

 where he became acquainted with the Prince Eugene of Savoy and 

 the chancellor Couut Sinzendorf. Upon the elevation of the Klector 

 of Hanover to the throne of England, Leibnitz returned to Hanover, 

 where, after the publication of a few political and philosophical works, 

 he expired on the 14th of November 1714. He was buried ou the 

 esplanade at Leipzig, where a monument in the form of a temple 

 indicate*, by the simple inscription, " Ossa Leibnitii," the place of his 

 buriaL 



The first object of the philosophical labours of Leibnitz was to give 

 to philosophy the rigour aud stability of mathematical science. The 

 latter derives this character both from its formal portion, or demon- 

 stration, and also from the nature of it* object-matter. \Yith a view 

 to the former, Leibnitz assumed the existence of certain universal find 

 necessary truths which are uot derived from science, but grounded in 

 the very nature of the thinking foul. (' Principia Philosophia,' s. '<(> 7.) 

 A* the iliJL'c m.itur of mathematics may be supposed to bo con- 

 structed of points or units, Leibnitz was led to the assumption of 

 certain primary constituent* of all matter. These are his famous 

 monad*, which form the ba-is of his system. These monads are 

 simple substances without parts, out of which all bodied are com- 

 pounded by aggregation. They arc real, because without real simple 

 principles the composite would not posses* reality ; and consequently, 

 if there were no monads, nothing of any kind could exist really. 

 These monads must not be confounded with the atoms of Democritu* 

 or Epicurus. They are real units, the grounds of all activity, or 

 force*, and the prime absolute principles of all composite things, 

 which may ultimately be resolved into them. Leibnitz called them 

 metaphysical points and substantial forms. Being without parts, they 

 are necessarily unextended, indivisible, and without figure. As such 

 they are incapable of dissolution, and without natural decay or pro- 

 duction, which is only possible iu composite bodies. The monads 

 therefore were created at once and momentarily, and in the same 

 manner they must be destroyed or last for ever. Internally they 

 admit not of change, since neither substance nor accident can pene- 

 trate what is wholly without parts. Nevertheless they must possets 

 certain determinations or qualities, since otherwise they could not be 

 things. Further, every monad is distinct from all others ; for there 

 cannot be two things absolutely identical and without internal diiV'-r- 

 euce. This proposition forma one of Leibnitz's necessary and funda- 

 mental principles, which he called the " principle of id utity of 

 indiscernible*" (principium identitatis indiscernibilium). According 

 to this principle all things must differ more or less, since otherwise 

 they would be indistinguishable, for identical things are indiscernible. 

 All created things are subject to change; consequently the monads 

 also are constantly changing. This change however is only extennl, 

 and does not operate internally ; on the contrary, the outward change 

 results from an internal principle; and this internal principle of change 

 constitute* the e-sence of all force : the monad* consequently are 

 forces. Besides this principle of change, every monad possesses also 

 a certain schema of that which is changed, which, so to say, while it 

 expresses the differences and multiplicity of the monad, yet comprises 

 the multiplicity iu unity. All natural changes proceed in gradntion ; 

 consequently, while one part is changing, another remains unchanged, 

 and the monad* consequently i>ossess a plurality of affections and 

 relations. This transitory state, which experiences and exhibits the 

 multiplicity of changes in the unity of the monad, is perception, 

 which however is unconscious (sine conscientift). Thu active force, by 



