POLANO. 



POLAR COUNTRIKS. 



1M 



Cracow with a territory of 40 square mile* WM created into a 

 and UM mnainder WM entitled the kingdom of Inland, .n.l 

 OM *o>rigm. The new kingdom received 

 .iilution. which guaranteed oeurity of person and 



. 



property, the liUrty of th prwa, the responsibility of mini-ton, the 

 mHnda8 of the judge* ; the uw of the national Unsuage ; and 

 a national militarj force. The representative body WM oompoead of 

 two chamber*, senator* and deputiea. 



Bach a liberal constitution granted to a kingdom with 4,000.000 of 

 inhabitant*, whoee loTeraign WM monarch over more than 60,000,000 

 rabjeeta. WM a perfect anomaly It could not be expected that such 

 a eomUtotion should be faithfully maintained ; and it WM not The 

 hopea raised by the emperor Alexander, that the Poli.-h provinces 

 incorporated with Rn*n should be tmitni with the new kingdom, 

 wire aoon diasipated, and dfaeontont began to unread among all the 

 Poliah population. The country, it in true, began to make rapid pro- 

 gran in agriculture, and indmtry WM greatly increased ; but the acts 

 of government evinced a systematic hostility to all that WM national, 

 particularly with respect to the system of public education. The free ex- 

 prasrion of opinion on the part of the student* at the university of Vilua 

 WM forcibly repreaeed, and the utmost severity was exercised upon 

 Toong men who bad been imprudent enough to speak plainly what 

 they frit strongly. Similar persecution of the student* took place at 

 Warsaw, mi'! the system of instruction was continually rendered less 

 fleacious by substituting absurd modes of teaching for sound methods, 

 and by limiting the subjects of instruction. A severe censorship pre- 

 vented not only the printing of every work of liberal principles, but 

 oven the introduction of similar works from abroad. 



These Cannes produce 1 their natural result. The French revolution 

 of July 1880, which produced a general excitement all over Europe, 

 WM not without effect nn public opinion in Poland : an insurrection 

 WM meditated, and the time was fixed for the spring of 1831. 

 Information of this projected movement bavin; reached the govern- 

 ment, rome of those who were implicated were arrested a circum- 

 stance which hastened the development of the plot. The insurrection 

 broke out on November 29th 1830, and was effected by the military 

 fchool, composed of about 200 young men, who were joined by many 

 students of the university and a few thousands of Poliah troops 

 stationed at Warsaw. The Russian troops, which had made some 

 ineffectual attempts to put down the insurrection, took up a position 

 near the town under the grand-duke Constantine, with whom two 

 regiments of Polish guards remained. A provisional government was 

 organised, which acted in the name of the emperor Nicholas as king 

 of Poland, and the grand-duke Constantine remained in hia position 

 awaiting the arrival of the army which was summoned to Warsaw 

 from different places. The army having assembled and declared for 

 the insurrection, the grand-duke, as its commander, by an order of the 

 day, transferred his authority to tbo national government, and was 

 allowed to retire from the country with 8000 Russian troops and 24 

 guns. In January 1831 the Diet declared the throne vacant, and 

 organised a national government under the presidency of Adam 

 Csartoryski. A vigorous defence was resolved on. The nation how- 

 ever could hardly muster 60,000 men to oppose a Russian army of 

 180,000 men and 896 guns. In the campaign which followed the 

 Pole* fought with great bravery and gained several victories ; but on 

 more than one occasion, advantages they had secured over the 

 Russians appear to have been thrown away from the inefficiency of 

 their commanders. In a battle which took place at Ostrolenka, on 

 May Sflth 1831, the Polish army sustained an enormous loss, particu- 

 larly of officers. After this Polish affairs assumed a melancholy 

 appearance. The want of ammunition and of every kind of resources 

 WM everely felt. This was chiefly caused by the Prussian govern- 

 ment, which did not permit the slightest assistance to the Poles to 

 cross the frontier. The Russians, on the contrary, were allowed to 

 have their magazines on the Prussian territory, and always found a 

 fri.-ndly asylum whenever they were obliged to retreat there, while the 

 Polr in such cases were invariably disarmed and retained prisoners. 



The Russian commander-in chief Diebitch died suddenly ou 

 June 9th, and wa* succeeded by P.ikievitch, who had distinguished 

 himself in Asi.t against the Persians and the Turks. Paskievitch 

 resolved to era* the Vistula, and he accomplished his plan by march- 

 ing near the Prussian frontier, where his, magazines wera in perfect 

 afrty, and where the bridge* by which he effected his passage were 



red. 



Meanwhile the national government resigned it* authority, and 

 General Krukowiecki was chosen president of the government. The 

 town bein^ in want of food, a considerable force WM detached to 

 collect |,rvi-inn in the province* on the right bank of the Vistula, 

 and only 30,000 men were left to defend Warsaw. Provisions were 

 *ppli<- 1. but the force* sent for them could not reach Warsaw in 

 time, which, being attacked on September 6th by the Russians, was 

 mrrend-re 1 to them by Krukowiecki on the 8th. The army, followed by 

 th member* of the diet and many trading persons, retired toward* the 

 frontiers of Prussia, which they entered on October 8th ; whilst another 

 part of the army wai compelled to retire on the Austrian territory. 



The consequence* of the failure of this insurrection wera most 

 deplorable to Poland. The emperor Nicholas exercised the utmost 

 severity against the Pole*. Many individuals who had taken a part in 



the insurrection wera condemned either to the mina of Siberia or 

 nent to serve M soldiers in the Caucasus and other Asiatic provinces. 

 Che constitution was formally abrogated, and another form of govern- 

 ment, called the Organic Statute, introduced. The universities of Yilm 

 and Waraaw, M well M many minor schools, were abolished, and the 

 mhlic libraries and museums were carried away to St. Petersburg aud 

 it her part* of Russia. Various other measure* were taken to destroy 

 he nationality of Poland, to abolish its language, and to overthrow its 

 religion, all of which it is said have been persistently carried out up to 

 the present time. After the surrender of Warsaw a great number of the 

 latriots emigrated to foreign countries. In 1832 Poland was declared 

 in integral part of the Russian empire. A feeble attempt at independ- 

 ence WM made at Cracow in 1846, which led to the annexation of this 

 art remnant of Polish nationality to Austria. [CBACOW; OALICIA.] 



POLAR COUNTRIES AND SEAS. The countries ai>d seas which 

 lie between the northern coasts of America and the North Pole are 

 noticed in the articla NORTH WEST PASSAGE ; those which are situated 

 on the other sides of the North Pole are described umler tlieir 

 respective name*. [GREENLAND ; ICELAND ; SHTZBKRIIFN ; NOVA 

 ZEMBLA ; SIBERIA.] It only remains to notice certain conditions of 

 he countries and seas which surround the North Pole, anil il 

 give an account of the discoveries which have been made in the seas 

 surrounding the South Pole. 



The seas which surround the North and South Poles are named the 

 Arctic Ocean or North Polar Sea, and the Antarctic Ocean or South 

 Polar Sea. These two oceans are bounded by two imaginary circles 

 which surround the globe at about 66 80' N. lat. and 66 30' S. lat 

 At the Poles themselves there is only one day of six months, during 

 which the sun never sets, and one night of six months, when the sun 

 never rises. In the spaces comprised between the Polar Circles and 

 ;he Poles the quantities of continuous day and continuous night vary 

 according to the distances from the Poles. Thus, at the north point 

 of Nova Zembla, 75 N. lat, there is uninterrupted light from May 1st 

 to August 12th, and uninterrupted darkness from November 8th to 

 February 9tb. At the Arctic Circle the greatest length of continuous 

 light is 24 hours at the summer solstice, or Midsummer's-Day, whilst, 

 at the same time, at the Antarctic Circle, the sun is 24 hours below 

 the horizon ; and the reverse at the opposite seasons of the year. The 

 general coldness of the Polar Regions arises from the sun's rays 

 striking the earth obliquely, as at the equator the heat is produced by 

 the sun's rays falling upon the earth vertically. 



The two great continents of the Northern Hemisphere terminate 

 towards the North Pole near 70 N. lat, which parallel may therefore 

 be considered as the general boundary-line of the North Polar Sea. 

 The lands comprised within this polar basin, besides the northern 

 shores of Europe, Asia, and America, include the northern parts of 

 Greenland and Nova Zembla, the islands of Spitzbergen, the Liakehov 

 Islands, and the great mass of inlands which lie opposite to the 

 northern coasts of British America. The North Polar Sea has only 

 one entrance from the Pacific Ocean, by Behring's Strait, the narrowest 

 part of which, between East Cape and Prince of Wales Cape, is only 

 about 18 miles across. From the Atlantic Ocean, besides the great 

 entrance by the Spitzbergen Seas, it is now known that there are 

 entrances by Smith's Sound from Baffin's Bay, and by the Wellington 

 Channel from Barrow's Strait. 



A large portion of the Arctic Ocean is constantly filled with 

 extensive fields and moving masses of thick and impenetrable ice. 

 This portion seems to extend round the Pole at variable distances 

 from the shores of Siberia, Russian America, and British America. 

 In an easterly direction it extends from the north point of Nova 

 Zembla to the western side of Melville Island. Here the navigation 

 westward up Barrow's Strait ceases, the 'pack-ice/ as it is called, 

 presenting an impassable barrier. On entering the Arctic Ocean from 

 the Pacific through Behring's Strait, the most daring and skilful navi- 

 gators have not been able to penetrate much farther in a northern direc- 

 tion than 70 N. lat. Captain Cook, in his last voyage, after passing 

 through Behring's Strait, sailed as far westward as North Cape, 180 

 W.long.; but here the massesoficeprevented any farther advance. If the 

 navigator, after passing through Behring's Strait, turns eastward, he 

 finds, in summer, between the American shores and the pack-ice, a 

 narrow passage much encumbered with broken ice, and may thus 

 with some difficulty reach the most north-eastern point of the Ame- 

 rican continent ; or, having reached Baring Island, may turn north- 

 ward and try to accomplish the North-West Passage by following 

 either of the tracks of Captain M'Clure. 



The great entrance to the Arctic Ocean by the Spitzbergen Seas is 

 not attended with much difficulty. Ships sail every year from thcf 

 shores of the Atlantic Ocean to Archangel, and must necessarily pass 

 round North Cape, 71 10' N. lat. ; other vessels proceed annually to 

 fish for whales, which they never expect to take south of about 78 

 N. lat. ; and others much smaller go every year from Hammerfest 

 and other place* to fish for walrusses along the western shores of 

 Spitzbergen. Barentz, the Dutch navigator, in 1594 and 1596, traced 

 the western shores of Nova Zembla as far as North Cape, 75 N. lat. ; 

 and the Russian navigator Ziwolka, who in 1836 surveyed the island 

 of Nova Zembla, found no difficulty in tracing the western coast to 

 Capo Nassau, and even the eastern coast to 61 E. long.; but im- 

 penetrable manes of ice prevented his advance farther to the east. 



