197 



POLAR COUNTRIES. 



POLAR COUNTRIES. 



198 



The greater or less severity of cold in the Arctic Seas seems to 

 depend more on circumstances of locality than on the degrees of 

 latitude. Thus, on the European side of the Polar Basin, the navi- 

 gation, as has been shown, ia open aa far as 80 N. lat. ; 011 the Asiatic 

 side it ia generally closed by masses of ice ; on the American side the 

 cold is very severe, and the navigation everywhere difficult and in 

 many parts dangerous. At North Cape, in Europe, 71 10' N. lat, 

 the mean temperature of the year is 32 Fahr. ; at Bear Island (Cherry 

 Island), between North Cape and Spitzbergen, 71 30' N. lat., the 

 mildness of the climate is extraordinary ; but opposite the coasts of 

 Siberia, farther to the east, the floating masses of ice render the navi- 

 gation so dangerous that some portions of the coast-line have not been 

 surveyed. This tract includes the most northern point of Siberia, 

 Cape Severo (Severo Vostochinii Noes). In this part of the Polar 

 Basin are the Liakehov Islands, the largest of which are named 

 Kotelnoi Fadeifakoi, New Siberia, and Liakehov. They are situated 

 between 73 and 76 N. lat On these islands the snow does not entirely 

 melt even in summer, and there ia no vegetation whatever. Along these 

 coasts of Siberia it has been ascertained that in winter the large body of 

 the sea is free from ice at certain distances from the shore. North of 

 New Siberia and Kotelnoi the distance is less than 20 miles. Farther 

 east it approaches nearer to the coast Near 165 E. long, it is 

 about 170 miles distant; but between 175 and 180 E. long., oppo- 

 site Cape Yacan, it is only about 4 miles distant At Ustyanak, in 

 Siberia, near the mouth of the river Tana, 70 55' N. lat, the mean 

 temperature of the year is only 4 Fahr. At Winter Island, on 

 the north-eastern coast of America, in 66 11' N. lat, 83 30' W. long., 

 the mean annual temperature is not more than 7 Fahr., while on the 

 south shore of Melville Island, about 74 N. lat, the mercury of the 

 thermometer is froxen every winter during four or five months. 



That there is a great sea comparatively unincumbered with ice in the 

 vicinity of the North Pole, and perhaps flowing over it, seems to have 

 been rendered probable by many fact* and circumstances. Bareutz, in 

 1594, remarked, " as soon as we made from the land [Nova Zembla] 

 and put more into the sea, although it was much farther northward, 

 presently we felt more warmth." Captain Parry, in his attempt to 

 reach the North Pole in 1827, leaving his ship, the Hecla, moored in a 

 bay on the north-east coast of Spitsbergen, proceeded with his party 

 over the ice, dragging the boats and sledges which had been con- 

 structed for the purpose. On July 27th they reached 83 46' N. lat, 

 19 25' E. long, when, the season being far advanced, and finding that 

 the ice over which they were travelling northward was itself drifting 

 southward, they relinquished their attempt, and commenced their 

 return journey. On August 12th they reached Little Table Island, or 

 rather a rock north of it, which Captain Parry named Rosa's Islet, 

 and which is the farthest land known in the northern hemisphere; it is 

 ia 80 47' 30' N. lat, 30' 34' K. long. Captain Parry and his party 

 were aheent from the Hecla 61 days, the distance traversed being 654 

 miles. On July 15th. being then i8-r 17' N. lat., it rained incessantly 

 for 21 hours. On July Itith the temperature was 37) Fahr. in the 

 shade. " In the evening it was so warm in the sun. though the tem- 

 perature in the shade was only 35', that the tar was running out of 

 the seams of the boats." They found the ice everywhere broken, but 

 Mat so when they were farthest north. After the middle of July no 

 ice entered the bay where the Hecla was moored, and for some weeks 

 afterwards not piece was seen in the vicinity. 



In further confirmation of there being a great sea in the vicinity of 

 the North Pole, it may be stated that Sir Edward Belcher saw an 

 extensive sea with little ice north of the Wellington Channel, as did 

 also Captain Penny north-west of the Victoria Channel ; that Captain 

 Inglefield taw a great sea north ess* of Whale Sound, near the head 

 of Baffin's Bay, and also north of Smith's Sound, which seems to be 

 an outlet into the Polar Basin from the head of Baffin's Bay. 



The difference of temperature between the north-western shores of 

 Europe and the north seat era shone of America seems to be owing to 

 two main causes the Gulf-Stream, and the drifting of the ice-masses 

 from the shone of Siberia. The Gulf-Stream is a great warm current 

 many miles ia width, whesh flows in a oorth-eastern direction from the 

 Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic, and passing by the British Islands 

 and along the coast of Norway, penetrates the Polar Sea as far as the 

 northern shores of Spitsbergen and Nova Zembla. Here in the spring 

 it meets the powerful current caused by the breaking-up of the ice in 

 the great riven of Siberia. As this vast body of water and broken 

 ice advances towards the shores of Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen the 

 Gulf Stream opposes its farther progress south and gives it a direction 

 westward, so that it passes by East Greenland and Iceland, and reaches 



the shone of America and Newfoundland, where the n of floating 



ice (sometimes miles in length and of great thickness) descend in the 

 spring as low as 40* N. lat On the coast of Norway, on the contrary, 

 as far as 71 N. lat, not a piece of drift-ice is ever seen. 



The countries which surround the north pole generally afford an 

 abundant supply of animal food, consisting of the walrus, the polar 

 bear, the moose-deer, the rein-deer, the wolf, the polar bare, and the 

 seal The number of aquatic birds is very large, and various kinds 

 of fish are in gnat abundance. 



We now prosesd to give a sketch of the discoveries which have 

 been made in the Antarctic Seas. 



The southern hemisphere, as is now well known, contains a much 



less proportion of land to sea than the northern hemisphere. But it 

 was formerly supposed that the remote and then unknown parts of 

 the southern hemisphere were occupied by an extensive continent, 

 which surrounded the Antarctic Pole, and extended to a great distance 

 from it. This imaginary continent, called Terra Australis Incognita, 

 makes a conspicuous figure on all maps which are more than a century 

 old. Little could be adduced in support of the supposed existence of 

 this continent except some imaginary law of equipoise. In the middle 

 of the last century however it was determined to solve the problem 

 of the existence of this Terra Australia, and Cook undertook his 

 second voyage (1772-1775) for the purpose. He found large masses 

 of floating id>, and only in three places succeeded in penetrating 

 beyond the Antarctic Polar Circle. In one place he attained 71 10* 

 S. lat., but he was generally unable to go much farther south than 

 60" S. lat. This was the case between 90 and 150 E. long., within 

 which limits the most extensive and continuous line of coast has 

 been since discovered. This line of coast however lies between 4 

 and 5 south of Cook's track. As Cook had found no laud south of 

 60, the Terra Australis disappeared from our maps, though he him- 

 self thought that there must be land in the vicinity of the pole, being 

 convinced that ice can only be formed in the neighbourhood of laud. 



Thus the matter rested up to 1819, when the South Shetland 

 Islands were seen by William Smith, on a voyage from Monte Video 

 to Valparaiso. In 1821 Powell discovered Trinity Land south of the 

 South Shetlands and the South Orkneys, between 60 30' and 61 

 S. lat, 44 30' and 46 30' W. long. Palmer, an American, discovered 

 a coast-line west of Trinity Land, which is called Palmer's Land ; and 

 the Russian navigator, Bellingshausen, discovered Alexander's Laud, 

 south-west of Palmer's Land. In 1823 Weddell tried to find land 

 east of the meridian of the South Shetland Inlands. He did not find 

 land, but he succeeded in advancing as far as 74 15' S. lat, where he 

 found a sea clear of ice. In 1831 and 1S32 Biscoe sailed round the 

 icy masses which inclose the south pole, and added to former dis- 

 coveries Enderby's Land and Graham's Land. The first lies at a 

 great distance from the countries south of the Shetland Islands, 

 between 49 and 51 E. long. ; but Graham's Laud ia between Alex- 

 ander's Land and Palmer's Land. Thus a nearly continuous coast- 

 line has been discovered south and west of the South Shetland Islands, 

 extending from 36 to 70 W. long., and comprehending from east to 

 west Trinity Land, Palmer's Land, Graham's Laud, and Alexander's 

 Land. In 1837 the French government sent some vessels to these 

 parts, under the command of Dumont D'Urville, who explored the 

 coast which Powell named Trinity Land, and changed its name to 

 that of Louis Philippe's Land. In the following year Balleny directed 

 his course to those parts of toe ocean which are south of New Zealand 

 and Australia, and discovered some islands in 66 44' S. lat., 163 11' 

 E. long., which he called Balleny Islands. He also discovered a 

 projecting coast-line near 116 E. long., which was called Sabrina 

 Land. But the largest tract of sea-coast was discovered in 1840. In 

 1839 the French government and that of the United States of North 

 America sent out expeditions for the purpose of making discoveries 

 in Ike Antarctic Seas. The French expedition consisted of two 

 vessels, under the command of Dumont D'Urville, and the American 

 of four vessels, commanded by Charles Wilkes. Both directed their 

 course to the seas which the year before had been visited by Balleny. 

 Wilkes found a coast-line in 154 27' E. long., and in continuing his 

 oourse westward for four weeks, he had either always a coast in sight, 

 or unequivocal indications of land being at no great distance. He 

 advanced as far as 97 30' K long., so that, including Sabrina Land, 

 he discovered a coast-line extending over near 50 degrees of longitude. 

 Dumont 1/lTrville reached the same coast in 140 41' E. long., and 

 pursued his course westward to 130 E. long. He called it Ade'lie 

 Land. It is remarkable that the coast of this Antarctic Continent, if 

 the appellation may be adopted, lies near the Antarctic Circle, either to 

 the south or to the north of it, and this is also the case with Enderby's 

 Land and Graham's Land, both of which are traversed by that line. 

 Only the tract of coast south of the South Shetland Islands extends 

 farther north, and approaches to 68 S. lat 



An expedition was fitted out in England in 1839 for the purpose 

 of making an attempt to reach the south magnetic pole, and it was 

 placed under the command of Captain James Clarke Ross. He 

 directed his course several degrees east of Balleny Island, and on the 

 1st of January, 1841, passed the antarctic circle near 173 E. long. 

 On the llth of January he discovered land near 70 41' S. lat, 

 172* 36' E. long., and soon found that it was a continuous coast, 

 trending southward and rising in mountain peaks to the height of 

 from 9000 to 12,000 feet, and covered with snow. On the 12th of 

 January he effected a landing, and took possession of it in the name 

 of the queen. He continued his course along the shores to 78 4' 

 8. 1st, tracing a coast-line of above 600 miles in length. In 77 32' 

 S. lat, 167 E. long., he saw a mountain about 12,400 feet above the 

 sea-level, which sent forth abundance of fire and smoke, to which he 

 gave the name of Mount Erebus. East of this volcano he observed 

 an extinct crater of somewhat less elevation, which he called Mount 

 Terror. At 78 4' S. lat his progress to the south was prevented by 

 a barrier which presented a perpendicular face of at least 150 feet, 

 along which he sailed eastward until he attained 168 37' W. long. 

 In the voyage of the following year he reached miles farther south, 



