SIARI. 



SIBERIA. 



546 



capital of Siam by being transported across the isthmus of Krah and 

 the Malay peninsula, by the roads which connect Poonga with Chai-ya, 

 Phun-phin, and Bandon, Trang with Ligor, and Queda with Suugora. 

 The goods were carried overland by elephants, the only animal of 

 burden used in these parts, and the journey took from five to seven 

 days. The goods were shipped on the shores of the Gulf of Siam 

 for the capital. By these roads the tin, ivory, and edible birds' -nests 

 of Silking are still brought to Siam ; but not the manufactures of 

 Europe and Hindustan, as Singapore is a better emporium for pro- 

 curing the goods, and the conveyance by this route is less expensive. 



In the present year, 1855, Sir J. Bowring succeeded in negotiating 

 a treaty with the king of Siam, which is to come into operation in 

 April, 1856, by which the restrictions which impede European trade 

 with Siam are to be removed, and a new and moderate import tariff is 

 to be substituted. British subjects are to be allowed the right to rent 

 or purchase houses and lands within a certain distance of Bang-kok. 



llittory. The early history of Siam is entirely unknown. In 1511 

 the Portuguese, after the conquest of Malacca by Albuquerque, 

 established an intercourse with Siam. In the 16th century Siam was 

 for many years subject to the Birmans, but recovered its independence 

 towards the close of that century. In 1612 the first English vessel 

 went to Ayuthia. Towards the end of the 17th century, a European 

 adventurer, a native of the island of Cephalonia, called Phaulkon, 

 who previously to his arrival in Siam bad served as a sailor, mostly in 

 English vessels, by his talents gained the esteem of the king, and was 

 by degrees promoted to one of the most important offices of govern- 

 ment. He persuaded the king to encourage the civilisation of his 

 abject* by inviting European settlers, and for that purpose to send 

 an embassy to Louis XIV. of France. This embassy appeared in 

 in 1684, and the king of France sent two embassies to Siam 

 in 1685 and 1687, and also a corps of 500 French soldiers. Phaulkon 

 put the French in possession of the fortress of Bang-kok, but in 1690 

 a revolution took place, through which the reigning family lost the 

 throne, the minister Phaulkon his life, and the French were expelled 

 from the country. About 1760 the Birmans laid waste the country 

 and took the capital, Ayuthia. The king of Siam had been killed in 

 the assault, and his family was carried away to Ava as prisoners. Soon 

 afterwards the Binnan army left the country, and a chief named PhU- 

 tak, of Chinese descent, seized upon the throne and proclaimed himself 

 king; but in 1782 he was deprived of his throne and life by an insur- 

 rection which placed Uu reigning family on the throne. Some further 

 attempts of the Birmans to conquer at least a part of Siam entirely 

 failed, and a true* was at last concluded between both parties in 1793. 

 Since that time no remarkable event has taken place in the history 

 of Siam. 



,[. [SOOLOO ARCHIFXULGO.] 



SIAWSK. [Out.] 



SIBERIA is the name of that part of the Russian empire which is 

 in Asia, and extends from the Ural Mountains, which divide Europe 

 from Asia, eastward to the seas of Okhotsk and Kauitchatka, both of 

 which are parts of the Pacific Ocean. It lies between 45 SO* and 

 77' 40" N. lat, eo* and 190 E. long. The most eastern point is East 

 Cape, or Vostochinii Nos, which is only about 48 miles from Cape 

 Prince of Wales in America, from which it is separated by the 

 narrowest part of Behrins/s Strait. The greatest length from east to 

 west exceeds 3000 miles, and the greatest width from north to south 

 is hardly lean than 1950 miles. It is bounded E. by the Pacific Ocean, 

 X. by the Polar Sea, W. by the Ural Mountains, and a by the Chinese 

 empire and the steppes of the Khirgbis Cossaks. The basin of the 

 Amur has recently been added to the Russian territories on the south. 

 [AMUR; KIBSM.] 



Surfact. This ! *""VTnT* country, which perhaps exceeds Europe in 

 extent by upwards of a million square miles, presents little variety of 

 surface. The western half, or that which lies west of the meridian of the 

 North- East Cape (105' E. long.), may be described as nearly an unin- 

 terrupted plain. The eastern half, or that which lies east of 105" E. 

 long., contains numerous mountain ranges and hills, which occupy a 

 great extent of country, between which some plains are inclosed. The 

 mountains in some places rise above the snow-liur. The plains are at 

 different elevations above the sea ; the southern being perhaps 2000 feet 

 above the sea-level, whilst the most northern are so low that a part of 

 tliem is inundated during hard gales. We may describe the country 

 in three portions, namely Western, Central, and Eastern Siberia. 



H'rttern Siberia lies between the Ural Mountains (: Klong.)and 85 E. 

 long., and the surface consists of one extensive plain. According to its 

 productive powers it may be divided into five regions, the steppe, the 

 agricultural district, the mining district, the wooded region, and the 

 northern plain, or tundra. The Steppe comprehends the southern part 

 of the plain as far north as 55 N. bit., and extends from the base of the 

 Ural Mountains to the banks of the river Irtish. It U called the Steppe 

 of Ishim. Along its south-eastern border lies a wide hilly tract, 

 about 800 miles in width, of which only the northern portion belongs 

 to Rossis. The valleys which divide the more elevated portions of 

 the steppe grnerally consist of bare rocks without vegetation, and are 

 partly covered with salt incrustations. The rivers have water in the 

 cold SBBson ; in the* hot season it is only found in a few places. The 

 numerous small lakes have always bitter or brackish water, and 

 cannot be drunk. The vegetation consists only of artemisuo, salaolse, 



GIO-J. DIT. VOI. IT. 



and salicorniic. The more elevated tracts are covered with grass 

 during the greater part of the year. But farther south, towards the 

 higher ridge of the Oolutau, the country improves. Wells are more 

 frequent at the foot of the hills, and though the grass grows only in 

 tufts surrounded by a bare red-clay, it is tolerably abundant, and 

 affords good pasture for the herds of the Khirghis Coesaks. There 

 are a few tracts fit for agriculture. This hilly tract is separated from 

 the Ural Mountains by a very level plain, which in these parts is only 

 300 miles wide, but farther north increases to double that width 

 between 52 and 55, where it occupies the whole country between 

 the Ural Mountains and the Irtish River. This plain contains an 

 immense number of small lakes, the water of which is brackish. 

 The tracts which divide these lakes from one another, and rise a few 

 feet above their level, have a soil consisting of sand or of yellow-clay, 

 or of both together, and they support only a scanty vegetation. 

 Many parts are covered with a salt efflorescence as white as snow, 

 and produce several kinds of salicornire. The river Ishim runs slowly 

 through a bottom never exceeding a mile in width : and on this 

 narrow tract there are bushes and good pasture. The most fertile 

 tracts lie round the lakes. In this steppe the summer is very hot, and 

 the winter exceedingly cold ; the quantity of rain is small, and usually 

 falls at the approach of winter. The Agricultural District extends 

 north of the steppe, between the Ishim line of fortifications on the 

 south and 60 N. lat Between the rivers Irtish and Oby it advances 

 as far south as 61 N. lat. This region presents a great diversity of 

 soil and productions. In that part which is contiguous to the Ural 

 Mountains, called the Steppe of Isset, the declivities of the mountains 

 are overgrown with forests, and numerous rivers descend from their 

 summits. As these rivers are abundantly supplied with water in 

 spring, they have excavated wide bottoms, which are covered with 

 alluvial soil, and are comparatively fertile. Accordingly agriculture 

 and the rearing of cattle are carried on to some extent. On the 

 lower declivities of the Ural Mountains are numerous mines of 

 iron and copper, in connection with which the extensive forests 

 which cover the surface of the adjacent districts are exceedingly 

 valuable. Of the country between the Tobol and the Irtish the 

 cultivable tracts are those which immediately adjoin the lakes. 

 Farther north the surface is hilly, especially between the Tobol and 

 Ishim ; and the soil is not inferior to that on the west of the Tobol. 

 Between the Ishim and Irtish the country U nearly a flat, but some- 

 what elevated above the watercourse*. Its productive power is small. 

 Between the Irtish and the Oby occurs the Steppe of Barabinza, 

 which is only well known where it is traversed by the road that leads 

 from Tobolsk to Tomsk, and to the mining district. The soil is 

 partly covered with swamps and lakes, several of which are of great 

 extent, as those of Oobiuskoi, Chany, and Chebakly : the more eleva- 

 ted tracts are traversed by many small rivers, which contain water 

 all the year round. In most parts the surface is a dead level, and 

 without vegetation ; but in isolated spots it U covered with grass, and 

 contains poplar and birch. The more elevate/1 spots are frequently 

 covered with a salt efflorescence, and the water of some of the lakes 

 U brackish, especially those south of 54* N. hit. This tract is not 

 much inhabited. The northern district of the Steppe of Barabinza 

 is covered with nearly continuous forests of firs and birch, on a very 

 swampy soil. No agriculture is carried on, but wild animals are 

 numerous, among which the beaver is considered the most valuable 

 by the nomadic tribes that inhabit these forests and live chiefly on 

 the produce of the chace. The south-eastern angle of the Steppe of 

 Barabiuza contains a very remarkable depression, which begins about 

 20 miles due north of the town of Semipalatinsk, on the Irtish 

 (50* 25' N. lat.), and extends in a north-north-east direction to the 

 town of Bernaul, on the Oby (53 20' N. lat.), a distance of more than 

 200 miles. The width varies between 20 and 30 miles. The whole 

 tract is covered with fine fir-trees, which are very valuable for the 

 mining operations carried on at Bernaul and in the Altai Mountain*. 

 The winters of the agricultural district are much colder than in 

 Russia west of the Ural. At Tobolsk the thermometer every winter 

 sinks to -25, and sometimes to -30, and it generally does not rise 

 above -20 for four or six weeks together. The summer heat is very 

 great In July and Augurt the thermometer usually rises to 85, and 

 even 90" after mid-day ; but the nights are rather cold in comparison 

 with other countries in which the daily temperature is as high. The 

 Mininy District extends over the south-eastern part of Western 

 Siberia, and comprehends the most western portion of the ALTAI 

 MOCKTAJXS. Thu Wooded Regvm lies north of 60, but, properly 

 speaking, the northern portion of the Steppe of Barabiuza, as far 

 south as 57, ought to be included in it, as the general features are 

 similar. The whole region is covered with a variety of species of 

 pine and fir, and the birch is also common. No part of it is adapted 

 to agriculture. A little rye and barley are cultivated, and some vege- 

 tables are grown. Fur-bearing animals abound in the district, and 

 fish are obtained in considerable quantities in the river Oby. The 

 climate in winter is severe, but the heat in summer is very consider- 

 able. The most northern part of Western Siberia is a low plain, 

 called the Tundra. The surface is nearly a dead level, and quite 

 destitute of trees. Only a few shrubs occur, whose roots do not 

 penetrate the ground, and even these are of stunted growth. Even 

 in summer ice U found only a few inches under the surface. The 



2N 



